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http://www.archive.org/details/childwelfareinalOOnati 


Child  Welfare  in  Alabama 


An  Inquiry  by  the  National    Child    Labor   Committee 

under  the  Auspices  and  with  the  Co-operation  of 

The  University  of  Alabama 


Edward  N.  Clop  per 
Director 


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ALABAMA 


Child  Welfare  in  Alabama 


An   Inquiry   by   the   National    Child    Labor   Committee 

under  the  Auspices  and  with  the  Co-operation  of 

The  University  of  Alabama 


Edward  N.  Clop  per 
Director 


PUBLISHED   BY 

INCORPORATED 

105   East  22d  Street,  New  York  City 


1  ^1  i)  5  0  0 


Cop>Tight  1918 

by  the 

National  Child  Labor  Committee 


PRESS  OF  CLARENCE  S.  NATHAN,  INC.,  NEW  YORK. 


CONTENTS 


PAGE 

Introduction Edward  N .  Clopper  5 

Public  Health J.  H.  McCormick  10 

Education James  J.  Doster  63 

Rural  School  Attendance Eva  Jofc  101 

Child  Labor  Law  Administration Florence  I.  Taylor  125 

Juvenile  Courts  and  Probation Mrs.  W.  L.  Murdoch  147 

Child-Caring  Institutions  and  Home  Finding. /.ee  Bidgood  163 

Recreation Gladys  M.  Gleason  205 

Law  and  Administration W.  H.  Sicijt  226 

A  summary  of  recommendations  and  general  discussion. 


^^'£ 


INTRODUCTION 

Edward  N.  Clopper 
National  Child  Labor  Committee 

The  child  is  the  raison  d^etre  of  the  family,  which  is  our  social 
unit  for  its  protection  and  rearing.  It  is  the  family's  center  of 
interest,  and  itself  the  potential  founder  of  a  future  family.  What- 
ever affects  the  child  affects  the  family  and  reacts  upon  society  and 
the  state.  Therefore  the  well-being  of  the  child  in  all  respects  is  of 
vital  concern  to  the  state. 

The  child  has  many  interests  and  is  subject  to  many  influences, 
some  sound  and  healthful,  others  sinister,  fraught  with  danger,  or 
positively  harmful.  All  these  interests  and  influences  are  of  the 
utmost  importance  to  the  state,  but  in  our  individualistic  way  we 
of  the  United  States  have  looked  upon  them  primarily  as  matters 
properly  within  the  control  of  the  family  and  have  deemed  it  wise 
to  take  action  for  the  sake  of  the  children  only  when  the  family  has 
been  broken  up  or  has  failed  notoriously  in  its  obligations.  We  have 
clung  persistently  to  the  theory  that  the  family  in  its  independent 
struggle  to  promote  its  own  welfare  will  solve  its  own  problems 
to  best  advantage  and  at  the  same  time  promote  the  welfare  of 
society.  But  as  society  has  become  more  and  more  complex,  we  are 
faced  by  the  cold  fact  that  conditions  no  longer  make  it  possible 
for  the  family  to  carry  on  this  struggle  independently — it  is  unable 
to  bear  up  against  the  pressure  of  social  factors  as  it  once  was  against 
individual  factors,  and  we  begin  vaguely  to  understand  that  society 
itself  must  take  a  hand  in  the  control  of  these  greater  forces. 
Intelligent  parents  will  logically  and  almost  instinctively  corre- 
late all  their  efforts  for  the  benefit  of  their  own  children,  so  far 
as  they  arc  able  to  put  forth  such  efforts  in  their  own  way  as  sepa- 
rate undertakings,  but  it  would  be,  of  course,  absurd  for  the  state 
to  assume  that  all  children  have  intelligent  parents,  financially  able 
to  give  them  proper  attention  and  training,  and  that  therefore  no 
responsibility  rests  upon  its  own  shoulders.  We  all  agree  that  chil- 
dren unfortunate  by  reason  of    orphanage,  defectiveness,  environ- 

5 


6  Child  Welfare  in  Alabama 

ment,  poverty,  disease,  or  neglect  must  have  the  fostering  care  that 
their  peculiar  circumstances  require.  But  we  forget  that  even  chil- 
dren who  are  fortunately  situated  in  their  home  life  and  normal  in 
body  and  mind,  stand  nonetheless  in  need  of  thoughtful  oversight 
in  order  that  their  continued  welfare  may  be  assured.  Plans  for 
child  care  that  are  aimed  only  at  the  correction  of  abnormal  situa- 
tions and  do  not  provide  for  the  strengthening  and  development  of 
normal  conditions  are  but  narrow  in  scope  and  limited  in  effect.  We 
cannot  take  it  for  granted  that  because  it  has  the  protection  of  a 
family  all  will  go  well  with  the  child  and  that  another  good  citizen 
is  guaranteed.  Only  now  is  the  state  beginning  to  see  dimly  that 
this  happy-go-lucky  guardianship  of  its  wards  is  fair  neither  to  them 
nor  to  itself,  and  that  it  must  hold  itself  to  strict  accountability  for 
the  welfare  of  all  within  its  jurisdiction. 

The  healthful  interests  of  the  child  embrace  all  those  things 
that  make  for  worthy  manhood  or  womanhood — the  essentials  to 
which  everyone  is  entitled  as  the  basis  of  strong  and  intelligent 
citizenship.  They  may  all  be  grouped  together  under  the  two 
heads  of  Health  and  Education,  both  considered  in  their  broadest 
aspects.  Health  means  the  segregation  of  the  mentally  unfit  to 
ensure  a  reduction  in  the  birth-rate  of  abnormal  children,  the  re- 
quirement of  physical  fitness  of  applicants  for  the  marriage  license, 
freedom  of  mothers  from  toil  before  and  after  confinement,  control 
of  infant  mortality,  insistence  upon  responsibility  for  illegitimacy, 
birth  registration,  physical  recreation,  pure  food,  good  housing, 
medical  inspection  of  children  in  schools,  in  institutions,  and  at 
work,  as  well  as  all  other  precautionary  measures,  and  suitable 
organization  for  the  administration  and  control  of  these  matters  by 
the  community.  Education  means  training  for  definite  responsi- 
bilities in  life,  a  broadening  of  opportunity,  a  quickening  of  the 
appreciation  of  one's  duty  to  self  and  fellows,  character-building 
and  discipline,  as  well  as  mental  recreation  and  instruction  in  the 
fundamentals    of    learning. 

Opposed  to  the  healthful  interests  of  the  child  are  the  harmful 
influences  that  retard,  dwarf,  pervert  and  sometimes  wholly  destroy 
his  growth  and  future  usefulness.  They  are  the  evils  to  which  the 
child  is  exposed — disease  of  the  mind  or  body,  premature  or  improper 
labor,  bad  environment,  delinquency,  poverty,  mistreatment. 

We  have  on  the  one  hand  the  constructive  forces  acting  for  the 


Introduction  7 

preservation  of  life,  the  safeguarding  of  health,  and  the  progress 
of  humankind,  and  on  the  other  hand  the  destructive  forces  that 
bring  about  want,  disease,  abuse  and  crime.  These  conflicting  forces 
are  constantly  at  work  and  eternal  vigilance  is  the  price  of  safety. 
Whatever  is  done  to  hold  back  the  forces  that  destroy,  gives  the 
forces  that  build  up  a  better  chance  to  work  their  way,  but  it  is  of 
little  avail  to  limit  the  task  to  the  repair  of  damage  done,  for  the 
tearing  down  is  a  constant  process,  and  under  such  a  policy  the  havoc 
wrought  to-day  will  have  its  counterpart  to-morrow.  The  efforts 
put  forth  merely  to  cure  disease,  relieve  suffering,  or  to  punish  the 
malefactor,  no  matter  how  widespread  or  how  well-organized  or  how 
indispensable  at  the  moment,  have  but  slight  effect  upon  the  causes 
of  wretchedness  and  crime — they  only  patch  up  what  is  left  after 
the  blast  has  spent  its  fury  and  the  pain  has  been  endured.  What 
is  of  far  greater  importance  is  that  steps  shall  be  taken  to  thwart 
the  forces  that  leave  this  trail  of  misery,  and  thereby  prevent  a  re- 
currence of  such  misfortune  and  distress. 

It  is  not  enough  to  maintain  institutions  for  the  special  training 
of  children  who  have  started  wrong — the  conditions  that  made  the 
wrong  start  inevitable  must  be  corrected.  The  institution  can  deal 
with  the  wayward  child  but  all  the  people,  acting  through  the  state, 
must  deal  with  the  factors  that  made  him  wayward.  The  treat- 
ment of  hook-worm  patients  will  not  answer  the  purpose  if  the  soil 
is  left  polluted. 

Such  action  as  Alabama  has  so  far  taken  for  the  welfare  of  her 
children  except  in  public  schooling,  has  been  remedial  rather  than 
preventive.  Furthermore  the  method  has  been  local  rather  than 
comprehensive,  and  independent  rather  than  co-operative.  The  com- 
plete care  of  every  child  has  not  been  insured.  What  has  been  done 
has  been  in  response  to  isolated  impulses  and  agitations — a  certain 
condition  has  been  brought  prominently  to  the  attention  of  the  people 
at  one  time,  with  the  result  that  action  has  been  taken  relating  to  that 
specific  condition,  and  at  another  time  another  condition  has  been 
similarly  made  known  and  changed.  Hence  the  body  of  measures 
built  up  for  the  social  welfare  has  been  of  spasmodic  and  more  or  less 
haphazard  growth;  one  agitation  and  its  measures  for  improve- 
ment have  borne  little  or  no  relation  to  other  agitations  and  their 
results.  Educational  progress  has  been  to  a  great  extent  independent 
of  progress  in  health  work;    what  has  been  accomplished  for  the 


8  Child  Welfare  in  Alabama 

child  laborer  has  had  no  relation  to  the  relief  of  poverty;  efforts 
for  the  prevention  of  juvenile  delinquency  have  been  made  without 
regard  to  what  had  been  or  should  be  done  in  the  other  branches 
of  child  welfare  work;  and  gaps  are  left  where  notliing  whatever 
has  been  done.  When  all  these  achievements  and  omissions  are 
viewed  in  the  aggregate  they  seem  a  veritable  jmnble.  Some  of  the 
administrative  agencies  created  to  carry  out  the  purposes  of  laws, 
likewise  show  that  in  their  organization  thought  was  not  centered 
upon  logical  arrangement  of  functions — as  in  the  case  of  child  labor 
law  enforcement,  which  has  been  entrusted  to  the  inspector  of  jails  and 
almshouses,  who  in  turn  is  an  appointee  of  the  state  board  of  health. 
Several  of  the  states  of  the  Union  have  within  the  past  few  years 
undertaken  to  bring  together  in  their  proper  relations  all  of  their 
measures  for  the  benefit  of  children,  at  the  same  time  adjusting 
their  procedure  so  as  to  accord  with  the  best  thought  on  the  subjects 
involved.  It  is  here  suggested  that  Alabama  do  this  also.  Ohio, 
Minnesota,  New  Hampshire  and  Missouri  have  been  conspicuous 
in  this  movement  for  the  codifying,  standardizing  and  co-ordinating 
of  child  welfare  laws  and  of  the  functions  of  administrative  agencies. 
The  chapters  in  this  volume  treat  of  different  subjects,  describing 
conditions  as  they  exist  to-day  in  Alabama,  and  offering  definite 
recommendations  for  their  improvement,  but  even  a  hasty  glance 
over  their  pages  will  reveal  the  intimate  relation  that  one  subject 
bears  to  another — the  essential  interdependence  of  all  as  parts  of  a 
whole.  Health,  education,  labor  control,  recreation,  relief,  institu- 
tional care  and  correction  are  not  isolated  fields  of  work  but  form 
one  general  program.  It  is  to  show  this  interdependence  and  the 
necessity  of  providing  legislation  and  administrative  agencies  so  as 
to  do  work  hitherto  left  undone,  of  eliminating  conflicts  in  laws  and 
in  the  authority  to  enforce  them,  of  hannonizing  the  various  ele- 
ments of  a  complete  program,  and  of  suggesting  ways  and  means  of 
making  this  program  practicable,  that  this  volume  is  designed.  It 
is  intended  to  stimulate  interest  in  child  welfare  and  to  develop 
the  thesis  that  a  child,  in  order  to  enjoy  the  fullest  possible  oppor- 
tunity to  grow  into  complete  manhood  or  womanhood,  must  have 
the  fullest  possible  measure  of  care  through  the  properly  co-ordinated 
functions  of  the  state.  It  is  not  enough  that  these  functions  be  per- 
formed separately,  each  independently  of  the  others — their  inter- 
relations must  be  recognized  and  this  can  be  most  easily  done  from 


Introduction  9 

the  commanding  viewpoint  of  the  state  itself.  It  is  from  this  view- 
point that  the  following  pages  have  been  prepared,  and  it  is  hoped  that 
public  opinion  may  be  developed  and  crystallized  in  the  form  of  ade- 
quate laws,  comprehensive  policy  and  co-operative  practice  that 
will  work  effectively  and  harmoniously  for  the  good  of  the  children 
of  the  state.  The  University  of  Alabama,  because  of  its  deep  in- 
terest in  such  work  and  its  desire  to  serve  the  state  in  promoting 
the  well-being  of  its  boys  and  girls,  has  co-operated  with  the  National 
and  the  Alabama  Child  Labor  Committees  in  the  study  of  conditions, 
preparation  of  reports,  and  the  fonnulation  of  this  state  program,  the 
entire  inquiry  having  been  pursued  under  its  auspices.  The  work 
was  made  possible  by  the  generosity  of  a  friend  of  the  children,  a 
resident  of  Alabama,  who  has  defrayed  all  the  expenses  incurred. 


PUBLIC   HEALTH 
J.  H.  McCoRMiCK,  M.D. 

School  of  Medicine,  University  of  Alabama 

INTRODUCTORY 

It  is  a  truism  that  public  health  is  public  wealth.  A  health 
survey  of  Alabama  reveals  the  striking  fact  that  for  the  most  part, 
especially  in  rural  sections,  the  people  possess  no  true  appraisal  of 
community  health  as  a  supreme  value. 

It  is  an  axiomatic  proposition  that  in  the  final  analysis  the 
fundamental  wealth  of  a  state  lies  not  so  much  in  its  natural  re- 
sources or  geographic  position  as  in  its  man  power.  As  a  corollary, 
it  is  likewise  self-evident  that  the  potential  wealth  of  a  state  increases 
in  proportion  as  the  population  approaches  the  norm;  in  other 
words,  the  real  economic  basis  of  the  wealth  of  a  state  depends  upon 
a  proper  conservation  of  its  man  power. 

The  true  economic  unit  should  therefore  be  based  upon  the  in- 
dividual, rather  than  upon  a  realty  or  cognate  entity,  since  the  latter 
has  value  only  insofar  as  it  is  utilizable  by  the  individual  or  the 
masses.  Economists  have  already  sensed  this  basic  fact,  although 
not  always  clearly  on  account  of  a  failure  to  differentiate  between 
cause  and  effect,  erroneously  substituting  the  one  for  the  other, 
as  a  premise.  This  is  evidenced  more  and  more  by  an  insistence 
upon  the  recognition  of  "intangible  assets"  as  a  source  of  wealth. 
These  are,  after  all,  the  product  of  the  inherent  forces  of  an  individual 
or  a  corporation,  applied  directly  or  indirectly,  vitalizing  that  which 
otherwise  possesses  no  true  value,  since  it  is  inert,  although  con- 
taining latent  possibilities. 

How  does  this  "intangible  asset"  apply  to  the  health  value  of  the 
individual  or  the  community? 

Actuaries  have  clearly  demonstrated  that  each  individual  ac- 
cording to  his  classification  has  a  real  monetary  value  to  the  common- 
wealth that  may  be  transposed  from  an  asset  to  a  liability  unless 
properly  safeguarded.  Courts  of  law  have  also  recognized  this  fact  in 
their  allowance  for  death  or  injury.  Life  insurance  companies  place  a 
pecuniary  value  upon  the  life  expectancy  of  the  individual,  based,  it  is 
true,  upon  his  physical  condition,  but  far  more  emphasis  is  now  placed 
upon  the  "moral  risk,"  which  is  in  point  of  fact,  an  "intangible  asset." 

10 


Public  Health  11 

Corporations  are  rapidly  coming  to  recognize  this  "intangible 
asset"  of  health  for  their  employes,  many  of  them  demonstrating 
to  their  own  satisfaction,  at  least,  that  they  can  convert  this  "in- 
tangible asset"  into  a  tangible  one  which  pays  large  dividends. 

The  United  States  Army  has  recognized  this  health  asset  as 
never  before  in  histor^^  for  not  onh^  have  there  been  vast  strides  in 
sanitation  and  preventive  medicine,  to  preserve  the  health  of  the 
soldier,  but  such  social  adjuncts  as  the  Red  Cross,  the  Y.  M.  C.  A. 
camp  activities,  together  with  a  host  of  other  agencies,  have  been 
utilized  to  keep  the  soldier,  whether  in  camp,  cantonment  or  field,  from 
physical,  inental  and  moral  deterioration.  To  accomplish  this,  vast 
sums  of  money  are  now  being  expended  which  would  formerly  have 
been  regarded  as  both  lavish  and  extravagant,  because  the  Federal 
Government  has  learned  that  it  pays  in  actual  dollars  and  cents. 

The  records  of  the  War  Department  show  that  over  60  per  cent 
of  the  National  Guard  from  Alabama,  detailed  on  the  Mexican  border, 
suffered  from  hookwonn.  In  consequence  of  a  lowered  vitality  from 
this  preventable  disease,  a  large  number  of  these  Alabama  soldiers 
were  stricken  with  pneumonia,  attended  by  an  abnormally  high 
mortality.  The  same  condition  prevails  in  Camp  Wheeler,  Georgia, 
where  a  majority  of  the  Alabama  recruits  are  stationed. 

Per  contra,  during  the  Spanish  American  War,  the  death  rate 
from  typhoid  fever  was  appalling,  largely  because  health  values  were 
not  stressed  then  as  now  by  the  national  government,  nor  were  the 
causes  of  the  prevalence  of  the  disease  as  well  understood.  Eighty- 
six  per  cent  of  all  deaths  during  that  war  were  due  to  typhoid  fever, 
which  attacked  practically  20  per  cent  of  the  entire  army.  In  marked 
contrast,  as  a  result  of  compulsory  inoculation  against  typhoid 
fever,  practically  no  cases  developed  among  the  thousands  of  troops 
on  the  Mexican  border  during  the  recent  occupation. 

Again,  according  to  the  report  of  the  Provost-Marshal  General 
to  the  Secretary  of  War,  under  the  selective  service  act  of  1917,  of 
the  number  of  young  men  from  21  to  30  drawn  in  the  first  draft, 
29.11  per  cent  were  rejected  by  the  local  boards  as  physically  dis- 
qualified. In  addition,  5.07  per  cent  were  rejected  by  the  camp 
surgeons,  making  a  total  of  34.18  per  cent  of  rejections.  It  would 
seem  to  be  a  severe  indictment  of  the  country  at  large  for  failing  to 
conserv^e  its  man  power,  when  over  one-third  of  its  draft  men  in  the 
very  prime  of  life  arc  found  to  be  physically  unfit. 


12  Child  Welfare  in  Alabama 

How  does  this  rule  apply  to  Alabama?  While  it  is  true  that 
Alabama  shows  a  slightly  better  percentage  of  acceptances  than  our 
sister  southern  states,  still  the  number  rejected  is  too  high.  Out  of 
47,867  selectmen  examined  by  the  local  boards  11,498  were  rejected 
for  physical  defects.  In  addition  a  considerable  percentage  were 
rejected  by  the  surgeon  at  Camp  Wheeler  and  elsewhere,  the  exact 
figures  being  at  present  not  available;*  a  large  percentage  of  these 
defects  were  of  a  minor  nature  and  could  have  been  prevented  by 
proper  hygienic  living  and  environment  in  childhood. 

Disease  with  its  enormous  toll  of  human  life  and  waste  of  human 
efficiency  and  the  attendant  financial  loss  is  in  a  large  measure  pre- 
ventable. It  is  estimated  that  four  in  every  ten  cases  might  be  pre- 
vented by  the  proper  teaching  and  practice  of  hygiene. 

The  modem  tendency  in  the  study  of  medicine  is  toward  the 
prevention  of  disease  rather  than  investigating  means  of  cure  be- 
cause prevention  benefits  the  greater  number  and  pays  larger  re- 
turns for  the  investment.  Investigation  of  the  cause  and  the  means 
of  transmittal  tend  toward  a  clearer  knowledge  of  disease  prevention, 
thereby  establishing  a  foundation  upon  which  the  new  public  health 
system  is  to  be  built.  The  state  has  no  duty  paramount  to  that  of 
protecting  the  health  and  lives  and  of  aiding  in  the  increase  of  physical 
efficiency  among  its  citizens.  Public  health  can  be  purchased  at  a 
reasonable  price.  The  public  is  slowly  but  surely  realizing  this  truth 
and  is  beginning  to  demand  from  the  state  a  greater  degree  of  protec- 
tion against  preventable  diseases  than  formerly.  Such  protection  the 
state  alone  can  give,  since  it  can  do  things  which  the  people  them- 
selves cannot  or  will  not  do.  It  is  not  only  good  public  policy,  but  it 
is  also  in  keeping  with  modern  research  for  the  state  to  engage  in 
the  larger  field  of  preventive  medicine,  since  the  "biggest  business 
proposition  before  the  people  today  is  the  business  of  public  health." 

To  ascertain  whether  Alabama  has  provided  proper  means  to 
cope  with  this  "big  business"  problem,  it  is  nesessary  to  examine 
the  various  agencies  it  has  provided  for  the  care  of  public  health. 

*  Since  writing  the  above,  in  the  American  Medical  Journal,  August  17, 
1918,  Fol.  572  appears  a  chart  and  table  prepared  by  the  office  of  the  Provost- 
Marshal  General,  indicating  the  relative  number  of  registrants  inducted  and 
rejected  in  the  various  states  for  the  period  from  February  10  to  July  10, 
1918,  in  which  Alabama  shows  the  highest  percentage  of  rejections  of  any  state 
in  the  Union;  the  number  inducted  being  11,750,  accepted  9,705,  rejected  2,054, 
a  percentage  of  rejection  of  17.46.  The  average  for  the  United  States  is  5.83 
per  cent,  the  next  highest  state  being  South  Carolina  with  12.09  per  cent,  New 
Jersey  showing  the  lowest  with  1.93  per  cent  rejections. 


Public  Health  13 

PUBLIC   HEALTH   SYSTEM 

The  public  health  system  of  Alabama  differs  fundamentally 
from  that  of  any  other  state  in  the  Union.  This  is  the  only  state 
in  which  it  is  lodged  wholly  in  the  hands  of  the  organized  medical 
profession. 

State  Board  of  Health. 

The  state  code  provides  that  the  State  Medical  Association 
as  constituted  under  the  laws  now  in  force  or  which  may  hereafter 
be  in  force,  constitutes  the  State  Board  of  Health. 

"That  her  health  boards,  state  and  county,  shall  consist  of  medical  men 
exclusively,  and  has  endowed  these  boards  with  the  important  legal  function 
of  administering  the  health  laws  and  regulations  of  the  state,  the  county, 
and  the  incorporated  cities  and  towns." 

"Has  confined  to  the  organized  profession  the  right  of  naming  all 
medical  health  officials,  state,  county  and  city,  and  by  so  doing  has  not  only 
placed  the  selection  of  these  officials  in  the  hands  of  those  most  competent 
to  judge  as  to  their  fitness,  but  has  thereby  widely  divorced  her  public 
health  system  from  politics  and  from  commercial  influence." 

"Has  provided  her  medical  men,  not  only  with  the  privilege,  but  with 
the  right  of  practically  applying  through  their  organized  bodies,  state  and 
county,  whatever  of  sanitary  knowledge  they  may  acquire  to  the  prevention 
of  disease  and  to  the  protection  of  the  health  and  lives  of  the  people." 
(Paragraphs  2,  3,  4,  Preface  to  Medical  Laws  of  Alabama,  1916). 

County  Board  of  Health. 

According  to  the  code  of  Alabama  for  1907,  Vol.  1,  Chapter 
22,  Act  1,  Sec.  700  and  701: 

"The  County  Medical  societies  in  affiliation  with  the  Medical  Associa- 
tion of  the  State  of  Alabama,  and  organized  in  accordance  with  the  pro- 
visions of  its  constitution  are  boards  of  health  for  their  respective  counties, 
and  for  all  incorporated  cities  and  towns  therein,  and  shall  be  under  the 
general  supervision  and  control  of  the  State  Board  of  Health." 

"No  local  board  of  health,  or  executive  medical  body  of  any  name  or 
kind,  for  the  exercise  of  public  health  functions,  other  than  the  county  board 
of  health,  must  be  established  in  any  county,  town  or  city." 

It  thus  follows  that  the  county  medical  society  is  the  health 

unit,  and  constitutes  the  board  of  health  for  the  county.     All  legal 

reputable  and  ethical  physicians  of  the  county  are  eligible  for  mem- 

-J3£rship  in  the  society.     It  is  important  to  Ijear  this  in  mind,  since 

every  physician  in  the  county  holding  membership  in  the  county 


14  Child  Welfare  in  Alabama 

society  is  a  member  of  the  board  of  health  by  reason  of  such  mem- 
bership. The  functions  of  the  county  society  among  other  things, 
as  set  forth  in  the  constitution  (Art.  II,  Sec.  1,  Paragraphs  2-5), 
are  to  accept  and  discharge 

"the  duties  that  devolve  upon  it,  as  the  legal  board  of  health  of  the  county 
and  to  encourage  the  study  of  all  conditions,  local  or  general,  that  may 
affect  the  sanitary  welfare  of  the  people  of  the  county,  with  a  view  of  urging 
the  adoption  of  such  measures  and  policies  as  will  best  promote  the  im- 
provement or  abatement  of  such  conditions." 

Each  county  society  elects  a  county  health  officer  and  a  muni- 
cipal health  officer  for  every  incorporated  city  or  town  in  the  county, 
and  also  five  censors,  the  latter  of  whom  act  as  a  committee  on  public 
health  whose  jurisdiction  and  duties  are  as  follows:  (1)  To  exer- 
cise advisory  and  executive  functions  with  regard  to  health  and 
quarantine.  (2)  Policy  of  committee  may  be  revised  or  modified 
by  the  county  society.  (3)  Supervision  of  county  and  municipal 
health  officers. 

Organization. 

The  State  Medical  Association,  which  is  the  State  Board  of 
Health,  is  composed  of  four  classes  of  persons,  viz.:  members, 
delegates,  counsellors  and  correspondents,  all  of  whom  may  take 
part  in  the  scientific  deliberations  of  the  association. 

The  counsellors  control  the  action  of  the  association,  since  they 
control  the  election  of  the  board  of  censors,  ten  in  number,  which 
when  constituted  acts  in  three  capacities,  to  wit:  (1)  As  a  State 
Board  of  Censors,  (2)  as  a  State  Board  of  Medical  Examiners,  (3) 
as  a  State  Board  of  Public  Health. 

The  board  of  censors  elects  from  the  college  of  counsellors  the 
State  Health  Officer,  and  submits  the  name  of  the  officer  so  elected 
to  the  association,  (State  Board  of  Health)  for  confirmation.  It 
also  has  the  right  upon  a  two-thirds  vote  of  its  members  to  recom- 
mend to  the  association,  (State  Board  of  Health)  the  removal  of 
the  State  Health  Officer  from  office.  It  is  required,  through  its 
executive  officer,  the  State  Health  Officer,  to  supervise  and  direct 
the  administration  of  the  public  health  and  quarantine  laws  of  the 
state. 

The  State  Health  Officer  has  the  right  to  call  a  meeting  of  the 
State   Committee   of   Public   Health   for   consultation  and  advice 


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16  Child  Welfare  in  Alabama 

whenever  in  his  opinion  such  meeting  would  promote  the  public 
health  interest.  The  State  Committee  of  Public  Health  in  turn 
may  call  a  meeting  of  the  State  Board  of  Health  (the  State  Medical 
Association),  whenever  in  its  judgment  conditions  so  demand.  The 
State  Committee  of  Public  Health  and  the  State  Health  Officer 
render  to  the  State  Board  of  Health  (the  State  Medical  Association) 
reports  of  their  official  work  for  such  action  as  said  Board  may  see 
fili  to  take  thereon. 

Objection  has  been  made  to  the  form  of  the  State  Board  of  Health 
on  the  ground  that  the  above  provisions  virtually  make  it  a  self- 
perpetuating  body,  and  that  while  it  is  claimed  by  its  friends  to  be 
the  most  democratic  system  in  the  United  States,  its  opponents 
aver  that  it  is  democratic  in  theory  only,  while  autocratic  in  practice. 

From  a  practical  public  health  standpoint,  this  would  be  of 
no  interest,  except  to  the  medical  profession,  save  for  the  fact  above 
shown,  that  the  State  Medical  Association  is  the  State  Board  of 
Health,  and  is  invested  with  all  legal  power  as  such,  in  both  state 
and  county.  In  public  health  matters,  it  is  therefore  necessary 
clearly  to  keep  the  structure  of  the  organization  in  mind,  in  order 
to  ascertain  its  work  and  influence  in  the  state. 

The  State  Board  of  Health  under  Section  702  of  the  Code, 
through  its  executive  officer,  the  State  Health  Officer,  shall  have 
authority  and  jurisdiction  as  follows: 

1 .  To  exercise  general  control  over  the  enforcement  of  the  laws  relating 
to  public  health. 

2.  To  investigate  the  causes,  modes  of  propagation,  and  means  of 
,    prevention,  of  endemic,  epidemic,  infectious  and  contagious  diseases; 

I  3.     To  investigate  the  influence  of  localities  and  employments  on  the 

health  of  the  people. 

4.  To  inspect  all  public  schools,  hospitals,  asylums,  jails,  almshouses, 
theatres,  opera  houses,  court  houses,  public  halls,  prisons,  markets,  public 
dairies,  public  slaughter  pens  or  houses,  depots,  passenger  cars,  industrial 
and  manufacturing  establishments,  and  other  public  places  and  institutions 
of  like  character,  and  whenever  unsanitary  conditions  in  any  of  these  places, 
institutions  or  establishments,  or  conditions  prejudicial  to  health,  or  likely 
to  become  so  are  found,  proper  steps  shall  be  taken  to  have  such-  conditions 
corrected  or  abated. 

5.  To  examine  the  sources  of  supply,  reservoirs,  and  avenues  of  con- 
veyance of  drinking  water  furnished  to  incorporated  cities  and  towns,  and 
whenever  these  waters  are  found  polluted,  or  conditions  are  discovered 
likely  to  bring  about  their  pollution,  proper  steps  shall  be  taken  to  improve 

i    or  correct  conditions. 


Public  Health  17 

6.  To  prescribe  and  publish  rules  for  the  sanitation  of  depots  and 
passenger  cars  on  all  railroads,  including  the  territory  contiguous  to  said 
railroads. 

7.  To  exercise  general  supervision  and  control  over  county  boards  of 
health  and  over  county  and  municipal  health  officers  in  the  enforcement 
of  the  public  health  laws  of  the  state  in  their  respective  counties  and  muni- 
cipalities. 

8.  To  notify  the  court  of  coimty  commissioners,  or  board  of  like 
character  of  any  county,  or  the  mayor  and  council  of  any  munici- 
pality whenever  it  appears  that  the  health  officer  of  such  county 
or    municipality    is    negligent     or     inattentive     to     his     official     duties, 

^  whereupon  it  shall  be  the  duty  of  said  county  or  municipal  officials 
to  suspend  the  payment  of  the  salary  of  their  health  officer 
until  such  time  as  an  investigation  of  the  alleged  negligence 
and  inattention  can  be  procured  in  accordance  with  sub-section  11  of 
section  703  of  this  code.  At  the  end  of  such  investigation  it  shall  be  the 
duty  of  the  State  Board  of  Health  through  its  executive  officer  to  inform 
the  court  of  county  commissioners  or  board  of  like  character,  or  the  mayor 
and  council  of  any  municipality,  as  the  case  may  be,  of  the  result  of  the 
investigation,  which  result  shall  be  binding  on  the  said  court  of  county 
commissioners,  or  boards  of  like  character,  or  on  the  mayor  and  council 
of  any  municipality,  as  the  case  may  be. 

9.  To  act  as  an  advisory  board  to  the  state  in  all  sanitary  and  medical 
matters. 

As  each  count}^  health  board  is  a  miniature  of  the  state  health 
board,  so  the  duties  of  the  former  are  practically  the  same  as  the 
latter,  except  limited  to  the  confines  of  its  own  county. 

A  careful  investigation  of  the  objections  to  the  system,  both  by 
the  medical  profession  and  the  laity  shows  that  the  complaints  may 
be  classed  under  two  general  groups: 

1.  That  the  State  Board  of  Health  has  done  comparatively  little  in 
proportion  to  what  it  should  have  done  for  the  health  conditions  of  the 
state. 

2.  That  it  is  a  "close  medical  corporation,"  a  "self-perpetuating  body," 
and  that  the  rank  and  file  of  the  profession  have  no  actual  voice  in  the 
direction  of  its  affairs. 

To  the  first  objection  it  is  offered  in  rebuttal  that  a  sufficient 
amount  of  money  has  never  been  appropriated  to  accomplish  any 
results  in  public  health  work  in  Alabama.  Publicity  work,  bringing 
the  aims  and  oljjects  of  the  Board  to  the  attention  of  the  people  has 
never  been  possible.  The  Board  of  Health  has  lived  for  thirty  years 
in  splendid  isolation,  and  has  been  a  theoretical  organization.     It  is 


18  Child  Welfare  in  Alabama 

contended  that  the  fundamental  principles  upon  which  the  organi- 
zation is  built  are  sound.  The  machine  is  a  perfect  instrument  of 
its  kind.  Like  all  good  machines  it  perhaps  has  defects  but  no  one 
has  ever  been  able  to  specify  them  because  it  has  never  been  put 
into  operation.  It  is  like  a  mogul  engine  placed  on  a  railroad  track; 
its  builders  have  stood  around  and  admired  it,  and  occasionally 
rubbed  up  its  brasses,  and  perhaps  rung  the  bell,  but  there  has  never 
been  any  coal  and  water  in  it  with  which  to  produce  steam  and  make 
the  engine  go.  It  would  be  unwise  to  undertake  to  remodel  the 
engine  until  fuel  and  water  have  been  put  in  it,  and  a  competent 
engineer  has  tried  her  out  down  the  track.  If  there  are  defects, 
they  could  then  be  found,  removed  and  corrected,  but  until  the 
machine  is  tried  out,  it  would  be  a  mistake  to  undertake  this.  It 
must  be  borne  in  mind  that  there  is  a  difference  between  a  public 
health  system  and  a  plan  of  operation.  You  may  have  the  best 
system  in  the  world,  but  if  you  have  no  plan  for  operating  it,  it  is 
worthless.  Any  system  with  a  workable  plan,  capable  men  and 
plenty  of  money,  will  succeed.  No  system  without  these  elements 
has  any  value.  In  the  present  case  the  men  are  at  hand,  ready  for 
work;  comprehensive  plans  have  been  prepared;  what  is  needed  is 
the  money. 

The  second  group  of  objections  are:  The  inability  of  the  State 
Board  of  Health  to  produce  results  has  been  ascribed  to  faulty 
organization,  when  the  real  difficulty  was  a  lack  of  appropriation. 
Some  have  by  error  criticised  the  organic  structure  of  the  health 
system,  when  as  a  matter  of  fact,  their  complaint  was  in  the  nature 
of  a  personal  grievance,  which  may  or  may  not  have  possessed  merit. 
Others  have  mistaken  faults  of  administration  for  structural  defects. 
Rivalry  between  city  and  rural  factions  has  been  the  cause  at  times 
of  friction.  These  objectors  have  claimed  that  the  shortcomings 
complained  of  could  be  remedied  by  a  change  in  the  system.  The 
four  principal  plans  for  change  suggested  by  the  critics  of  the  present 
system,  are  in  order  of  frequency: 

1.  To  peiTnit  every  member  of  the  association  to  vote  and  be  eligible 
to  hold  office,  thereby  abolishing  the  representative  system  of  delegates  and 
counsellors. 

2.  To  take  the  election  of  the  State  Health  Officer  out  of  the  hands  of 
the  medical  association  and  make  the  office  appointive  by  the  Governor. 

3.  To  make  the  office  elective  such  as  that  of  the  State  Superintendent 
of  Education. 


Public  Health  19 

4.  To  place  the  state  health  department  under  the  direction  and  control 
of  the  United  States  Public  Health  Service,  following  the  precedent  estab- 
Ushed  a  few  years  ago  when  the  state  quarantine  system  was  transferred  to 
that  service. 

In  other  words,  the  personal  equation  which  necessarily  enters 
into  any  system  has  been  behind  most  of  the  criticism.  Much  de- 
structive criticism  has  been  offered  and  practically  no  constructive 
criticism  has  been  suggested,  save  the  change  from  a  theoretically 
perfect  system  which  for  lack  of  money  has  never  been  fully  tried, 
to  one  of  partisan  politics  which  has  in  every  southern  state  been 
attended  by  disaster  to  progress  in  public  health. 

The  health  system  of  the  state  is  a  live  issue  and  no  adequate 
conception  of  health  activities  can  be  obtained  without  a  proper 
understanding  of  it  since  all  future  activities  are  predicated  upon  the 
retention  or  modification  of  the  present  structure. 

Alabama  ranks  first  in  the  United  States  in  the  number  of 
physicians  holding  membership  in  the  State  Medical  Association 
and  is  far  above  the  surrounding  states, — thus  affording  a  strong 
argument  for  the  present  system.  Whatever  organic  defects  the 
present  system  may  possess,  no  legislative  enactment  is  needed  along 
that  line,  since  the  remedy  lies  in  the  hands  of  the  State  Medical 
Association  itself  through  a  change  in  its  constitution.  Such  change 
need  not  necessarily  alter  the  form  or  function  of  the  State  Board  of 
Health  and  therefore  would  not  invalidate  any  state  statute.  That 
the  code  may  with  advantage  be  amended  to  strengthen  certain 
minor  defects  which  experience  has  shown  to  exist,  in  order  to 
correlate  and  co-ordinate  the  Board's  activities,  is  unquestioned. 

A  sun.^ey  of  the  activities  of  the  State  Department  of  Health 
shows  that  it  has  been  woefully  hampered  not  only  by  lack  of  money 
but  until  comparatively  recently,  by  a  lack  of  breadth  of  vision. 
Strict  construction  rather  than  the  spirit  of  the  health  laws  was  the 
measure  of  the  administrative  horizon.  Social  welfare,  the  basic 
principle  of  all  public  health  systems  was  looked  upon  as  smacking 
too  much  of  paternalism  and  as  inconsistent  with  democratic  ideals. 
The  result  was  sometimes  a  lack  of  genuine  sympathy,  co-operation, 
and  co-ordination  with  private  efforts  to  ameliorate  unsatisfactory 
conditions  in  many  parts  of  the  state.  The  mechanism  of  the  system 
was  a  sort  of  fetish,  and  a  criticism  of  its  lack  of  activity,  even  when 
justifiable,  was  regarded  as  an  effort  to  demolish  the  system;   hence 


20  Child  Welfare  in  Alabama 

most  of  the  energy  was  expended  in  defending  the  form,  doing  little 
to  remove  the  cause  of  complaint. 

It  is  gratifying  to  record  the  fact  that-the  present  administration 
of  the  State  Board  of  Health  has  not  only  grasped  the  modem  view- 
point and  is  striving  with  every  facility  afforded  by  the  state  to 
render  efficient  service,  but  has  been  and  is  on  the  alert  to  take  ad- 
vantage of  every  possible  outside  agency  to  push  public  health 
matters  to  the  front  and  to  educate  the  people  to  the  necessity 
of  demanding  greater  aid  from  the  state. 

THE   STATE   BOARD   OF  HEALTH 

Having  described  the  machine,  what  of  its  fuel,  its  motive 
power  of  men  and  money  as  evidenced  by  the  executive  force  of  the 
State  Board  of  Health,  and  the  appropriation  for  its  maintenance? 

The  annual  appropriation  for  the  department  of  public  health 
is  $26,200,  of  which  amount  $19,700  is  expended  in  salaries  for  the 
executive  force,  the  personnel  consisting  of: 

State  Health  Officer 

Stenographer 

Registrar  of  Vital  and  Mortuary  Statistics 

Chief  Clerk 

3  Assiatants 

Bacteriologist  and  Pathologist 

First  Assistant 

Second  Assistant  \  All  for  Laboratory 

Stenographer 

Janitor 

Sanitary  Engineer  and  Field  Director  of  Sanitation 

Salaries $19,700 

Compare  this  sum  with  the  liberality  shown  by  the  same  legis- 
lature for  disease  prevention  in  animals. 

For  prevention  of  hog  cholera  (Page  105,  Acts  1915) $28,000 

For  tick  eradication  per  annum  (Page  204,  Acts  1915) 25,000 

(This  entails  a  $25,000  appropriation  from  the  counties. 
Mobile  County  alone,  although  not  a  cattle  county,  has  spent 
$50,000  for  tick  eradication,  but  cannot  afford  an  all-time 
health  officer.) 

For  expense  of  Live  Stock  Sanitary  Board  (Political  Code, 
Section  767,  page  458) 5,000 

Total $83,000 

Comparison  in  this  case  is  odious. 


Public  Health  21 

The  remainder  of  the  appropriation  is  spent  as  follows : 

Antitoxin  for  indigent  persons  (approximately) S200 

Printing  and  postage 3,500 

Traveling  expenses  (approximately) 1,500 

All  other  expenses 1,300 

Total $26,200 

For  the  entire  activities  of  the  State  Board  of  Health  having 
to  care  for  the  health  conditions  of  the  more  than  2,000,000  inhabi- 
tants, the  munificent  sum  of  $26,200  is  given  by  the  state. 

Leaving  out  the  purely  clerical  part  of  the  force,  there  remain 
only  six  persons  to  look  after  the  entire  technical  side  of  public 
health,  or  an  equivalent  of  one  person  for  every  11  counties  if  each 
were  responsible  for  covering  such  an  area  instead  of  having  to  cover 
the  entire  state  in  his  particular  field. 

It  is  quite  obvious  that  this  pitifully  small  force  is  incapable 
not  only  of  effectively  caiTying  out  the  manifold  duties  required  of 
the  department  as  previously  shown  in  Section  702,  but  the  further 
requirements  entailed  in  section  733,  page  30  which  reads: 

The  sum  of  §25,000  is  hereby  appropriated  to  the  State  Board  of 
Health  annually.    Said  sum  shall  be  expended  for  the  following  purposes: 

(1)  To  supervise  the  execution  of  the  health  laws  of  the  state; 

(2)  To  supervise  the  collection  of  the  vital,  mortuary  and  infectious 
disease  statistics  of  the  state;    and  to  tabulate  the  same  for  pubHcation; 

(3)  To  furnish  all  such  blanks,  envelopes,  record  books,  stationary 
and  postage  as  may  be  needed  for  the  collection,  tabulation  and  filing  of 
the  vital,  mortuary  and  infectious  disease  statistics  of  the  state; 

(4)  To  conduct  a  bacteriological  laboratory  for  furnishing  the  most 
modem  scientific  aids  in  the  diagnosis  and  treatment  of  the  disease  of  the 
people  of  the  state; 

(5)  To  conduct  a  Pasteur  Institute  for  the  free  treatment  of  all  resi- 
dents of  the  state  who  may  be  bitten  by  rabid  animals  and  who  may  apply 
for  treatment ; 

(6)  To  conduct  campaigns  for  the  education  of  the  people  of  the  state 
as  to  the  causation,  propagation  and  prevention  of  tuberculosis,  hookworm 
disease,  typhoid  and  malarial  fevers,  and  other  preventable  diseases; 

(7)  To  conduct  campaigns  for  the  extermination  of  tuberculosis, 
hookworm  disease,  typhoid  and  malarial  fevers,  and  other  preventable 
diseases,  insofar  as  this  may  be  accomplished; 

(8)  To  conduct  campaigns  for  the  education  of  the  people  as  to  sanitary 
methods  to  be  employed  in  securing  pure  milk  and  pure  drinking  water; 

(9)  To  distribute  among  the  people  of  the  state  bulletins,  leaflets, 
etc.,  giving  information  in  regard  to  preventable  diseases; 


22  Child  Welfare  in  Alabama 

(10)  To  provide  an  equipment  for  a  field  hospital  to  be  used  for 
isolating  and  treating  cases  of  infectious  and  pestilential  diseases  that 
may  occur  in,  or  be  imported  into  the  state; 

(11)  To  establish  one  or  more  depots  of  supply  of  diphtheritic  anti- 
toxin in  every  county  of  the  state,  said  antitoxin  to  be  furnished  free  of  cost 
to  all  persons  unable  to  provide  themselves  with  the  remedy,  when  needed; 

(12)  To  provide  an  equipment  for  disinfecting  houses  and  other  places 
under  urgent  and  special  conditions; 

(13)  To  execute  through  its  board  of  medical  examiners  the  law  regu- 
lating the  practice  of  medicine  in  the  state; 

(14)  To  enable  the  State  Board  of  Health  to  secure  legal  advice  and 
-assistence,  when  needed,  in  the  execution  of  the  health  and  quarantine 

laws  of  the  state,  also  to  enable  the  State  Board  of  Medical  Examiners  to 
obtain  legal  advice  and  assistance,  when  needed,  in  executing  the  law  regu- 
lating the  practice  of  medicine  in  the  state; 

(15)  To  provide  an  equipment  for  illustrating  popular  lectures  on  the 
cause,  modes  of  transmission  and  prevention  of  diseases,  said  lectures  to 
be  delivered  under  the  auspices  of  the  State  Board  of  Health; 

(16)  To  employ  such  clerks,  agents,  and  other  employes,  and  to 
purchase  such  property,  materials  and  supplies,  and  to  enter  into  such 
contracts  as  may  be  considered  expedient  by  said  board  in  discharging  its 
duties,  or  assisting  in  the  discharge  of  the  duties  of  other  boards  or  officials 
having  duties  in  connection  with  any  of  the  health  laws  of  the  state. 

Is  it  any  wonder  that  with  such  a  multitude  of  duties  imposed 
upon  it,  dissatisfaction  has  been  expressed  at  the  "inefficiency" 
of  the  State  Board  of  Health?  Yet  almost  always,  due  in  a  large 
measure  to  a  lack  of  exact  knowledge  of  the  facts,  fault  is  found 
with  its  organic  structure  rather  than  with  the  inadequate  force  and 
lack  of  money  at  its  command. 

Notwithstanding  the  protean  character  of  the  above  functions, 
the  state  has  not  provided  a  single  inspector  to  aid  and  assist  in  the 
gathering  of  the  necessary  infonnation  from  which  an  intelligent 
opinion  of  conditions  complained  of  can  be  formed,  nor  to  see  that 
the  remedy  is  properly  applied  after  it  has  been  suggested.  With 
two  exceptions,  Alabama  is  at  the  bottom  of  the  list  of  southern 
states  in  reference  to  state  funds  available  for  public  health  work. 

SUPERVISION  AND   ENFORCEMENT   OF  HEALTH  LAWS 

The  authority  of  the  State  Board  of  Health  to  enforce  laws  is 
practically  nil  under  the  present  code.  It  can  act  in  an  advisory 
capacity  only,  and  has  no  power  actually  to  enforce  its  mandates, 
as  there  are  no  adequate  penalties  for  failure  to  obey. 


Puhlic  Health  23 

The  authority  of  county  boards  of  health  is  likewise  limited 
except  in  a  few  instances  where  some  specific  condition  has  been 
covered  by  statute,  or  by  the  action  of  a  board  of  county  commis- 
sioners heeding  the  advice  of  the  health  authorities  in  such  limited 
sphere  as  they  ma\^  have  jurisdiction,  or  in  municipalities  having 
special  ordinances. 

Practically  all  that  either  the  state  or  county  health  officer  can 
do  is  to  advise  and  recommend,  because  in  the  end,  if  the  local  civic 
authorities  do  not,  or  cannot  act,  the  health  authorities  can  only 
invoke  the  assistance  of  the  police  power  of  the  county  or  munici- 
pality. 

In  practice,  section  718  of  the  code  authorizing  the  abatement 
of  nuisances  is  unwieldy,  too  slow  in  action  and  too  complicated  to 
obtain  quick  and  effective  results. 

This  section  gives  the  health  officer  authority  to  order  the 
nuisance  abated,  but  in  the  event  of  failure  to  obey  this  order,  the 
health  officer  must  convene  the  public  health  committee,  and  they 
must  try  the  case  sitting  as  a  court,  yet  as  one  without  enforcing 
authority.  In  case  of  refusal  or  failure  to  abate  the  nuisance,  the 
civil  authorities  must  be  invoked,  and  they  may  proceed  at  the 
expense  of  the  person  responsible,  and  a  trial  be  held  by  the  county 
commissioners,  for  the  county  or  municipal  court  if  in  any  incor- 
porated city  or  town.  The  cost  of  abatement  is  taxed  upon  the 
property.  The  county  is  to  advance  the  amount  necessary  to  abate 
the  nuisance,  provided  however,  that  no  county  shall  be  required 
to  pay  more  than  $300  in  any  one  year  for  such  abatement  of 
nuisance. 

It  is  quite  obvious  that  with  this  cumbersome  machinery,  little 
if  anything  is  attempted.  It  is  therefore  recommended  that  the  law 
on  abatement  of  nuisances  for  sanitary  purposes  be  so  amended  as  to 
give  the  State  Health  Officer  similar  power  to  that  now  enjoyed  by 
the  State  Prison  Inspector  to  condemn  jails  and  order  changes. 

Act  1230  of  the  political  code  gives  municipalities  police  juris- 
diction in  sanitary  matters  for  three  miles  beyond  their  limits,  but 
even  then  the  matter  of  condemning  a  condition  as  a  nuisance  is  a 
tedious,  complicated  process.  It  is  therefore  recommended  that  the 
regulations  be  so  amended  as  to  give  the  county  medical  society 
power  to  declare  a  nuisance  to  exist,  and  to  abate  the  same  with  the 
right  of  appeal  on  the  part  of  the  owner  to  the  state  board  of  health. 


24  Child  Welfare  in  Alabama 

the  decision  of  the  latter  to  be  final  and  binding.  In  the  event  of  the 
owner  or  agent  failing  within  a  given  period  to  comply  with  the  man- 
dates of  the  State  Board  of  Health,  the  Board  should  be  empowered 
to  have  said  nuisance  abated,  the  cost  to  be  taxed  upon  the  property, 
the  owner  to  have  a  reasonable  time  given  in  which  to  reimburse  the 
Board  of  Health  for  said  cost.  Upon  failure  so  to  reimburse,  the 
State  Board  of  Health  should  be  empowered  to  sell  the  property  at 
public  sale  to  satisfy  such  claim.  This  will  simplify  the  complicated 
method  now  on  the  statute  books  and  produce  results. 

Such  a  radical  change  may  be  objected  to  on  the 
grounds  that  it  not  only  gives  too  much  power  to  the  State  Board 
of  Health,  but  makes  it  virtually  a  court  of  condemnation.  When 
the  organization  of  the  Board  is  considered,  however,  it  is  obvious 
that  it  is  admirably  fitted  for  such  a  court  of  review  as  well  as  afford- 
ing a  direct  method  of  obtaining  the  results  without  tedious  and 
costly  litigation. 

That  few  prosecutions  have  taken  place  for  violation  of  the 
present  sanitary  laws  is  conclusive  evidence  that  either  the  method 
of  enforcement  is  inadequate,  or  else  the  health  officials  have  been 
delinquent  in  their  duties,  for  instances  without  number  can  be 
cited  in  every  locality  where  insanitary  conditions  exist,  and  no  abate- 
ment through  prosecution  has  taken  place. 

Municipalities  and  incorporated  cities  and  towns  having  local 
ordinances,  are  in  a  better  position  to  remedy  insanitary  conditions. 
In  addition  they  can  invoke  the  police  jurisdiction  for  their  immediate 
environs. 

Many  of  the  most  insanitary  conditions  are  found  on  the 
outskirts  of  small  towns  and  cities,  and  it  is  necessary  frequently 
to  call  the  attention  of  the  health  authorities  to  such  conditions, 
but  as  a  result  nothing  is  done  because  the  town  authorities 
claim  that  the  matter  is  outside  their  jurisdiction.  The  county 
commissioners  usually  refuse  to  take  any  action  claiming  that  it  is 
the  business  of  the  town  to  look  after  it.  Consequently  nothing 
is  done. 

The  part-time  county  health  officer  either  gets  tired  running 
from  one  to  the  other,  or  local  influence  is  frequently  strong  enough 
to  prevent  action.  The  law  for  the  abatement  of  nuisances  should 
be  strengthened  and  full-time  health  officers  should  be  employed 
in  order  to  get  permanent  results. 


Public  Health  25 

INFECTIOUS  AND    CONTAGIOUS   DISEASES 

Paragraph  2,  section  702  charges  the  State  Board  of  Health 
with  the  investigation  of  the  causes,  modes  of  propagation  and 
means  of  prevention  of  endemic,  epidemic,  infectious  and  contagious 
diseases.  In  1916  and  1917  there  occurred  several  outbreaks  of  small- 
pox, typhoid  fever  and  measles,  the  last  during  the  spring  of  1918 
being  epidemic  throughout  the  state.  In  every  instance  where  the 
State  Health  Department  was  called  upon  to  assist  in  locating  the 
infection  there  was  prompt  compliance.  Most  of  this  was  in  the 
nature  of  consultations  with  county  and  municipal  health  officers 
as  to  the  course  and  the  best  measures  to  be  adopted  to  prevent 
the  spread  of  the  epidemics  or  threatened  epidemics.  Most  of  the 
consultations  resulted  in  detailing  the  sanitary  engineer  to  make  an 
investigation  of  the  local  sanitary  conditions. 

SANITARY  ENGINEERING 

The  Code  requires  the  investigation  of  the  influence  of  localities 
and  employments  on  health,  also  examination  of  source  and  distribu- 
tion of  the  water  supply  and  pollution  of  same,  sewage  disposal,  etc. 

The  work  has  been  so  enormously  increased  that  it  it  a  physical 
impossibility  to  attend  to  all  the  calls  made  upon  the  department. 
The  industrial  development  as  a  result  of  war  work  has  caused  a 
congestion  of  population  in  many  localities  heretofore  rural  in  char- 
acter, and  as  no  adequate  provisions  for  sanitation  had  been  pro- 
vided, soil  and  water  pollution  were  inevitable.  With  the  small 
force  of  sanitary  inspectors,  and  with  but  a  single  sanitary  engineer, 
this  phase  of  the  work  is  badly  handicapped.  The  United  States 
Public  Health  Service  has  been  generous  in  its  assistance,  and  the 
International  Health  Bureau  has  likewise  aided  in  many  of  the 
problems  presented.  Were  it  not  for  this  timely  assistance,  doubt- 
less many  serious  outbreaks  of  disease  would  have  occurred.  As 
it  is,  unless  immediate  relief  is  granted  with  proper  authority  to  en- 
force recommendations,  serious  trouble  is  in  store. 

It  is  therefore  recommended  that  several  sanitary  engineers  and 
inspectors  be  provided  for  in  the  next  appropriation  by  the  legisla- 
ture. There  can  be  no  question  that  the  efforts  of  the  Bureau  of 
Sanitary  Engineering  have  prevented  a  number  of  serious  epidemics 
in  various  parts  of  the  state. 


26  Child  Welfare  in  Alabama 

SANITARY  INSPECTION 
Inspection  of  Public  Schools,  Hospitals  and  Other  Institutions. 

Paragraph  4  gives  the  State  Board  of  Health  authority  to  in- 
spect all  schools,  hospitals,  jails,  almshouses,  theatres,  public  halls, 
prisons,  markets,  public  dairies,  pubHc  slaughter  pens  or  houses, 
depots,  passenger  cars,  industrial  and  manufacturing  establishments 
and  other  public  places  and  industries  of  like  character. 

No  actual  inspection  of  such  places  other  than  of  jails  and  alms- 
houses by  the  State  Board  of  Health  has  been  undertaken,  except  in 
one  or  two  instances  where  epidemics  have  broken  out  in  schools 
and  inspection  was  made  to  discover  the  source  of  infection. 

It  is  recommended  that  an  appropriation  be  made  for  one  or 
more  additional  state  sanitary  inspectors.  Some  of  the  duties  of  such 
inspector  are:  To  inspect  and  report  on  the  sanitary  conditions  of 
municipalities,  of  both  urban  and  rural  school  houses,  and  all  public 
institutions,  including  hotels;  inspect  passenger  trains  and  railroad 
stations  and  to  bring  about  the  correction  of  obvious  abuses;  in- 
spect all  industrial  institutions  and  work  shops  to  see  that  the  lab- 
orers are  surrounded  by  proper  sanitary  conditions;  and  to  check 
up  similar  work  done  by  county  officials. 

Inspection  of  Jails  and  Almshouses. 

The  legislature  of  1915  transferred  the  office  of  State  Prison 
Inspector  to  the  State  Board  of  Health  with  a  proviso  that  at  the 
expiration  of  the  term  of  the  then  incumbent,  the  State  Prison  In- 
spector should  be  elected  by  the  State  Board  of  Health  and  hence- 
forth discharge  the  duties  of  his  office  in  connection  with  and  as  a 
part  of  the  work  of  the  State  Board  of  Health.  The  transfer  oc- 
curred  in   April    1917. 

It  is  further  provided  that  he  shall  inspect  or  cause  to  be  in- 
spected at  least  twice  each  year  every  county  jail,  almshouse  and 
every  municipal  jail  or  prison  in  any  incorporated  town  or  city  in 
in  the  state  having  10,000  or  more  inhabitants,  and  to  aid  in  the 
just,  humane  and  economic  management  of  such  institutions;  to 
require  the  erection  of  sanitary  buildings  for  the  inmates;  to  in- 
vestigate the  management,  the  conduct  and  efficiency  of  the  officers 
or  persons  charged  with  their  management;  to  require  the  build- 
ings or  grounds  of  such  institutions  to  be  kept  in  sanitary  condition 


Public  Health  27 

and  to  make  a  detailed  report  to  the  governor  after  each  visit  on  their 
condition,  on  the  health  of  the  inmates  and  condition  of  the  buildings 
and  the  grounds;  and  to  see  whether  the  money  appropriated  for 
such  purposes  is  properly  expended.  He  shall  also  furnish  a  copy  of 
his  report  to  the  court  of  county  commissioners,  city  counsellors  or 
other  bodies  having  control  over  the  prison,  jails  or  almshouses. 
The  law  gives  him  full  power  to  see  that  his  orders  are  obeyed. 

With  such  power,  this  department  has  revolutionized  the  sani- 
tary condition  of  the  72  jails  in  the  state.  In  a  number  of  instances, 
the  buildings  have  been  condemned,  and  the  counties  required  to 
erect  new  sanitary  jails.  All  of  them,  without  any  exception,  have 
been  required  to  make  alterations  and  repairs  in  order  to  put  them 
in  sanitary  condition,  consequently  the  health  of  the  prisoners  has 
been  very  much  improved.  Many  abuses  have  been  corrected,  es- 
pecially in  the  matter  of  feeding  prisoners.  It  had  been  the  prac- 
tice of  many  of  the  sheriffs  to  make  a  large  profit  out  of  their  feed 
bills,  and  in  some  instances  the  feeding  was  so  poor  that  the  prison- 
ers suffered  from  lack  of  nourishing  food.  Not  only  was  the  food 
poor  in  quality  and  deficient  in  amount,  but  was  improperly  pre- 
pared, resulting  in  considerable  sickness  among  the  prisoners. 

Many  cases  of  tuberculosis  were  found  as  the  result  of  dark, 
damp,  ill- ventilated  cells  and  under-feeding.  The  drastic  weapon 
in  the  hands  of  the  State  Prison  Inspector  brought  unwilling  officials 
into  line,  with  the  gratifying  result  that  with  very  few  exceptions 
the  city  prisons  and  county  jails  are  now  in  a  reasonably  sanitary 
condition.  The  sheriffs  are  now  co-operating  in  enforcing  the  sani- 
tary requirements  of  the  department. 

One  of  the  crying  disgraces  of  the  state  is  found  in  the  59  county 
almshouses  or  poor  farms,  situated  throughout  the  state.  No 
systematic  inspection  or  sanitary  regulation  of  these  has  been  at- 
tempted. A  few  have  been  inspected  and  some  changes  made, 
but  the  surface  of  the  trouble  has  not  even  been  scratched.  There 
are  approximately  1,200  inmates  of  these  institutions,  of  whom 
50  are  children  ranging  in  age  from  infancy  up  to  16  years.  Of  these 
38  are  mental  or  physical  defectives. 

Insane  Asylums  and  Convict  Camps. 

Act  530,  1915,  states  that  upon  the  written  order  of  the  governor, 
it  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  State  Prison  Inspector  in  person  or  by  his 


28  Child  Welfare  in  Alabama 

chief  clerk  or  deputy  inspector  to  inspect  the  insane  asylums  of  the 
state  by  whatsoever  name  they  may  be  known ;  both  state  and  county 
convict  camps  of  corporations  or  individuals  leasing  and  working 
the  state  or  county  convicts;  the  penitentiary,  and  any  and  all 
state  institutions  of  whatsoever  kind  and  nature;  and  to  visit  any 
and  all  places  designated  by  the  governor.  That  the  same  powers 
and  authority  are  conferred  upon  the  State  Prison  Inspector  in  ref- 
erence to  such  inspections  as  in  respect  to  jails. 

The  general  inspections  covered  by  this  act  practically  duplicate 
paragraph  4,  section  702,  of  the  code,  relating  to  the  duties  and 
authority  of  the  State  Board  of  Health.  It  is  therefore  recommended 
that  this  entire  act  be  incorporated  in  paragraph  4,  section  702, 
thereby  avoiding  duplication  of  work  and  authority. 

It  is  further  recommended  that  the  State  Prison  Inspection 
Act  be  so  amended  that  a  clear  correlation  of  the  duties  and  activities 
of  the  office  be  afforded;  and  that  the  State  Board  of  Health  have 
administrative  authority  over  said  office  to  avoid  duplication  of 
administration  and  possible  clash  of  authority  as  well  as  being  in 
the  interest  of  administrative  economy  and  efficiency. 

Under  section  3,  act  303,  the  Inspector  is  authorized  to  appoint 
a  chief  clerk  and  two  deputy  inspectors  together  with  a  stenographer; 
the  salaries  to  be  paid  from  the  state  treasury. 

The  last  legislature  placed  the  enforcement  of  the  child  labor 
law  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  state  prison  inspector,  thereby 
adding  very  materially  to  the  work  of  the  office  force.  The  prison 
inspector  has  three  deputies,  one  assigned  to  the  inspection  of  jails; 
another  to  the  enforcement  of  the  child  labor  law  in  cotton  mills 
and  the  third  to  its  enforcement  in  other  establishnemts.  It  is 
quite  obvious  that  with  this  small  force,  very  little  attention  can  be 
given  to  the  health  problems  involved  and  until  this  bureau  has 
more  inspectors  it  cannot  do  much  to  better  the  conditions  in  the 
almshouses.  Needed  legislation  must  be  had  before  proper  results 
can  be  obtained. 

The  system  of  obtaining  vital  and  mortuary  statistics  is  not 
altogether  satisfactory,  the  force  being  too  inadequate  to  do  proper 
"follow  up"  work,  and  the  system  having  too  many  loopholes  to 
insure  accuracy. 

An  increase  from  two  full-time  lay  assistants  in  1910  to  ten  in 
1918  marks  the  growth  of  the  work  of  the  State  Board  of  Health. 


Public  Health  29 

In  the  fonner  year  the  only  lay  assistants  were  the  sanitary  engineer 
and  the  assistant  to  the  Registrar  of  Vital  Statistics.  The  ad- 
ditional eight  in  the  eight  years  were  primarily  for  the  purpose  of 
aiding  in  collecting  vital  and  communicable  disease  statistics,  and 
for  laboratory  work. 

VITAL   STATISTICS 

The  reported  death  rate  in  the  registration  area  of  the  United 
States  Census  Bureau  for  the  year  1915  was  14  per  1,000  of  popu- 
lation. The  reported  death  rate  for  Alabama  for  1915  was  10.5  per 
1,000  of  population;  for  1916  the  death  rate  was  10.45  and  for  1917 
was  12.65.  The  rate  in  1916  was  lower  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  more 
deaths  were  reported  than  in  the  previous  year.  The  reduction  is 
due  to  the  increase  in  population.  During  1916  and  1917  there  was 
an  exodus  of  negroes  numbering  many  thousands,  and  several 
thousands  of  soldiers  were  sent  to  training  camps  in  other  states. 
To  offset  this  loss  over  50,000  troops  were  brought  from  other  states : 
hence  this  shifting  makes  some  changes  in  the  actual  population 
tending  to  disturb  the  accuracy  of  the  statistics. 

The  birth  rate  for  the  registration  area  of  the  United  States  for 
the  year  1915  was  24.9  per  1,000  of  population.  The  birth  rate  for 
Alabama  for  1915  was  21.2  per  1,000  of  population;  the  rate  for  1916 
was  23.9  which  is  the  highest  birth  rate  ever  recorded  for  Alabama, 
and  is  very  little  below  that  of  the  registration  area. 

An  intra-state  registration  area  for  Alabama  has  been  established 
consisting  of  those  counties  in  which  the  births  and  deaths  reported 
reach  90  per  cent  or  more  of  the  estimated  normals — 15  deaths  and 
25  births  per  1,000  of  population  per  annum.  Forty-nine  of  the  67 
counties  were  in  this  area  for  the  births  for  the  year  1916,  while  55 
counties  reported  a  birth  rate  of  more  than  20  per  1,000  of  population. 

That  part-time  health  officers  have  been  largely  responsible 
for  the  failure  to  report  births  and  deaths  is  not  only  evidenced 
by  the  report  of  vital  statistics  for  1915-16  and  1917,  but  the  State 
Board  recognized  this  laxity  of  the  part-time  county  health  officers, 
and  urged  them  to  be  more  prompt  and  zealous  in  their  reports. 

To  show  further  that  the  method  of  collecting  vital  statistics 
is  defective,  the  following  illustrations  from  the  January  and  Feb- 
ruary, 1918,  vital  statistics  reports  of  the  State  Board  of  Health  are 
sufficient.    It  is  assumed  that  the  three  large  cities  of  the  state  where 


30  Child  Welfare  in  Alabama 

burial  laws  are  enforced  by  city  ordinances  supplementing  the  state 
health  laws,  would  have  accurate  and  complete  reports,  yet  in  Janu- 
ary, Jefferson  County  showed  535  deaths,  a  rate  of  22.4  and  only 
530  births,  a  rate  of  22.2; 

Madison,  101  deaths,  a  rate  of  24.5  and  62  births,  a  rate  of  15.1; 

Mobile,  194  deaths,  a  rate  of  25.2  and  168  births,  a  rate  of  21.4; 

Montgomery,  140  deaths,  a  rate  of  14.9,  and  90  births,  a  rate  of 
12.2; 

Tuscaloosa,  111  deaths,  a  rate  of  25.2,  and  82  births,  a  rate  of 
18.7. 

The  excess  of  deaths  over  births  was  not  due  to  any  abnormal 
conditions  but  shows  that  the  method  of  collecting  mortuary  stat- 
istics in  the  cities  is  on  a  better  basis  than  that  of  collecting  statistics 
for  births. 

It  is  quite  obvious  that  in  the  rural  districts,  the  latter  are  still 
more  difficult  to  obtain,  showing  very  clearly  that  many  of  the  part- 
time  county  health  officers  who  are  now  charged  with  the  enforce- 
ment of  this  phase  of  public  health  work  are  derelict  in  their  duty, 
and  that  while  the  department  has  repeatedly  called  attention  to 
their  failure  to  enforce  the  law,  no  prosecutions  have  taken  place. 

The  failure  to  report  births  is  also  due  in  a  large  measure  to 
midwives;  this  is  especially  true  as  to  the  non-reporting  of  cases 
among  the  negro  population.  It  is  therefore  recommended  that 
midwives  in  Alabama  should  be  examined,  and  certificates  issued 
to  them,  imposing  a  heavy  penalty  for  their  failure  to  report  any 
cases. 

To  obtain  recognition  by  the  National  Census  Bureau,  it  will  be 
necessary  for  the  State  Board  of  Health  to  change  its  methods  of 
collecting  vital  and  mortuary  statistics.  The  reports  should  be  sent 
to  the  State  Registrar.  The  reports  now  go  to  the  county,  are  re- 
corded, and  then  sent  up  to  the  state.  In  many  of  the  counties 
no  records  are  available.  The  reverse  of  this  policy  should  obtain. 
As  the  justice  of  the  peace  is  a  recognized  official  and  is  located  in 
every  beat  of  a  county,  he  could  be  made  the  local  registrar. 

It  is  recommended  that  steps  be  taken  by  the  next  legislature 
to  place  Alabama  in  the  federal  registration  of  vital  statistics  area. 
The  model  law  provides  that  each  county  be  divided  into  small 
districts,  such  as  beats,  and  a  registrar  appointed  for  each  district 
to  whom  the  doctors  and  midwives  shall  report  all  births  and  deaths. 


Public  Health  31 

which  are  in  turn  reported  direct  to  the  state  registrar;  the  local 
registrar  to  be  paid  by  the  county  a  fee  for  each  record  made. 

Another  requirement  of  the  model  law  is  that  the  body  of  any 
deceased  person  cannot  be  buried  or  removed  without  a  permit 
issued  by  the  local  registrar.  This  means  the  reporting  of  all  deaths. 
It  is  estimated  that  the  cost  of  operation  of  the  model  law  would 
be  on  an  average  of  $400  or  $500  for  each  county. 

The  Bureau  of  Vital  Statistics  has  had  even  more  difficulty  in 
obtaining  reports  on  communicable  diseases,  which  physicians  are 
required  to  report  immediately  to  the  health  officer  in  whose  juris- 
diction they  occur,  and  the  physicians  throughout  the  state  have 
been  admonished  by  the  State  Board  of  Health  to  be  more  careful 
in  reporting  such  diseases,  thereby  assisting  the  department  in  pre- 
venting their  spread. 

BACTERIOLOGICAL  LABORATORY 

Of  all  the  departments  of  the  State  Board  of  Health,  the  state 
laboratory  has  been  the  most  efficient,  so  far  as  tangible  results  are 
concerned.  The  actual  cost  of  conducting  it  is  about  $8,000.  No 
provisions  having  been  made  by  the  1915  legislature  for  the  rent, 
light  and  heating  of  the  laboratory,  these  items  had  to  be  paid  out 
of  the  fees  collected. 

Examinations  both  general  and  for  rabies  have  steadily  increased 
from  1908  to  1915,  but  there  was  a  considerable  falling  off  during 
1916.  The  increase  in  the  number  of  private  laboratories  in  Bir- 
mingham, Montgomery  and  Mobile,  and  the  fact  that  all-time  health 
officers  who  are  not  only  doing  the  work  for  their  counties,  but  doing 
a  considerable  amount  of  private  work  for  the  country  doctors  in  their 
vicinity,  have  caused  a  decrease  in  the  number  of  examinations  from 
these  localities.  The  increase  in  1917  was  due  largely  to  the  intro- 
duction into  the  state  of  new  industrial  enterprises  and  cantonments. 

The  last  legislature  authorizing  the  State  Board  of  Health  to 
inquire  into  the  purity  of  the  water  supply  of  the  state  has  greatly 
increased  that  part  of  the  work.  The  department  is  not  quite  clear 
as  to  just  what  authority  has  been  conferred  by  these  acts,  as  they  are 
somewhat  indefinite,  and  this,  coupled  with  the  lack  of  proper  inspec- 
tion due  to  an  inadequate  force,  has  hampered  this  phase  of  the  work. 

In  1917  there  were  1,552  specimens  of  sputum  examined  for 
tuberculosis  and  although  this  was  an  increase  over  the  previous 


32  Child  Welfare  in  Alabama 

year,  yet  a  comparison  of  the  number  of  examinations  with  the 
evident  number  of  existing  cases  in  the  state  shows  that  the  laboratory 
is  getting  only  about  one-sixth  as  many  as  it  should. 

There  were  700  deaths  reported  in  1916  from  typhoid,  showing 
at  least  7,000  cases,  whereas,  in  only  about  20  per  cent  of  the  cases 
was  laboratory  assistance  asked.  In  1917  there  were  3,700  cases 
and  989  deaths  reported  showing  in  both  years  a  great  failure  to  re- 
port this  reportable  disease.  The  laboratory  made  1,502  examina- 
tions for  typhoid  in  1916  and  1,553  in  1917. 

In  1916  the  laboratory  made  654  examinations  of  feces  and  889 
in  1917.  About  40  per  cent  of  these  requests  for  examinations  were 
from  local  physicians  in  Montgomery  showing  that  the  laboratory 
is  not  used  as  much  as  it  should  be  in  the  eradication  of  hookworm. 

In  1917  there  were  646  examinations  of  blood  for  malaria  with 
2,375  cases  and  530  deaths  reported,  showing  that  the  services  of  the 
laboratory  are  not  sufficiently  utilized  by  the  doctors  of  the  state 
to  assist  in  a  diagnosis. 

The  laboratory  is  now  making  all  the  Loeffler's  Blood  Serum 
used  for  culturing  diphtheria  bacilli.  In  this  disease  also  physicians 
throughout  the  state  have  not  utilized  the  laboratory  as  much  as 
they  should.  Especial  attention  is  called  to  the  desirability  of 
ascertaining  when  a  patient  ceases  to  be  a  menace  to  others  in  order 
that  he  may  be  released  from  isolation  and  quarantine,  since  this 
fact  can  only  be  established  by  cultural  methods.  The  necessity  of 
educating  not  only  the  laity  but  the  profession  to  the  necessity  for 
early  immunization  treatment  for  all  exposed  cases  is  one  of  the 
duties  which  should  be  undertaken  when  funds  are  available  for 
this  extensive  work.  The  state  suffers  a  great  loss  each  year  on  ac- 
count of  absence  from  school  because  of  diphtheria,  more  from 
quarantj-ne  than  from  the  actual  number  of  cases. 

In  1917  Wassermann  tests  for  syphilis  were  made  in  573  cases. 
The  presence  of  two  cantonments  in  the  state  with  thousands  of 
soldiers,  and  the  necessity  for  safeguarding  them  from  venereal 
diseases  have  been  emphasized  the  last  two  years.  The  records 
show  that  a  larger  percentage  of  the  civilian  than  the  military  popu- 
lation is  infected  by  these  diseases.  The  United  States  Public 
Health  Service  has  established  a  clinic  at  Montgomery  for  the 
examination  and  treatment  of  civilians,  especially  women,  and  in 
Mobile  a  hospital  service  has  been  established  in  the  county  jail 


Public  Health  33 

under  the  supervision  of  the  Medical  Department  of  the  University 
of  Alabama.  More  than  300  women  have  been  treated  in  this  service 
at  Mobile;  the  funds  for  the  606  being  furnished  largely  by  the  local 
Rotary  Club.  The  state  laboratory  has  been  unable  to  make  these 
tests  free  except  for  indigents,  and  although  the  work  is  increasing 
yearly  it  feels  that  it  is  not  rendering  the  service  it  should.  If  the 
next  legislature  grants  an  increased  appropriation,  this  service  can  be 
materially  extended.  The  recognition  that  social  diseases  form  a 
tremendous  public  health  problem  is  resulting  in  the  education  of  the 
laity  to  the  necessity  of  early  diagnosis. 

During  1917,  428  dog  heads  were  received  for  examination 
for  rabies,  more  than  in  any  previous  year,  and  49  per  cent  were 
found  rabid.  The  number  of  persons  treated  at  the  laboratory  for 
the  prevention  of  rabies  was  269,  with  one  death,  entailing  the  ad- 
ministration of  6,725  doses  of  the  viinis  which  is  furnished  free  by 
the  United  States  PubHc  Health  Service.  The  expense  to  those 
undergoing  treatment  during  the  year  for  traveling  and  board  dur- 
ing treatment  approximately  was  $8,070.  It  is  recommended  that 
branches  of  the  Pasteur  Institute  for  the  administration  of  anti- 
rabic  virus  be  established  at  Binningham  and  Mobile  to  lessen  the 
expense  and  facilitate  the  treatment  of  the  patients,  and  that  more 
stringent  laws  with  heavy  penalties  be  enacted  by  the  next  legislature 
against  unmuzzled  dogs. 

Not  only  has  the  present  State  Health  Officer  used  every  pos- 
sible opportunity  in  a  campaign  of  education  for  public  health  in  an 
official  way,  but  he  has  enlisted  the  help  of  outside  agencies  to  bring 
the  subject  before  the  people.  Foremost  among  these  is  the  Inter- 
national Health  Board  which  has  agreed  in  addition  to  other  activi- 
ties to  make  an  intensive  sanitary  survey  of  three  counties,  provided 
each  county  raises  the  sum  of  $3,600  to  help  defray  expenses,  the 
International  Health  Board  not  only  furnishing  a  like  amount,  but 
paying  all  overhead  charges.  In  such  a  survey  every  home,  white 
and  negro,  rural  and  urban,  in  the  county  or  in  a  certain  selected 
area,  is  visited  by  the  sanitary  corps,  each  area  being  about  25 
square  miles  and  having  about  800  inhabitants.  Local  conditions 
are  noted  and  the  remedy  prescribed. 

The  International  Health  Board  conducted  a  soil  pollution 
campaign,  generally  known  as  the  hookworm  campaign,  during  the 
years  1910  to  1918,  though  actual  hookworm  work,  except  in  DeKalb 


34  Child  Welfare  in  Alabama 

and  Etowah  counties  ceased  in  March  1915.  It  is  fair  to  assume  that 
the  better  showing  made  by  Alabama  as  compared  with  other 
southern  states  in  the  draft  rejections,  can  be  directly  traceable  to 
the  hookworm  campaign,  since  quite  a  number  of  the  registrants 
were  treated  for  hookw^orm  during  this  period.  No  provision  has 
been  made,  however,  by  either  the  state  or  county  for  the  continu- 
ance of  the  hookworm  work,  and  much  of  the  good  that  has  been 
accomplished,  has  been  offset  by  subsequent  neglect.  This  is 
strictly  a  preventable  disease,  and  while  some  attention  has  been 
paid  to  it  in  rural  schools,  it  has  been  sporadic  and  not  unifonn  nor 
continuous. 

STATE   BOARD   OF   MEDICAL  EXAMINERS 

The  State  Board  of  Health  in  its  capacity  as  a  board  of  medical 
examiners  ranks  among  the  highest  in  the  United  States. 

During  1917  the  total  number  of  applicants  examined  was  67; 
the  total  number  granted  certificates  45;  the  total  number  refused 
certificates  22;  number  issued  pro  forma  certificates  2;  percentage 
of  rejections  38.6.  Of  the  unsuccessful  applicants  represented  by 
colleges,  8  were  from  the  Birmingham  Medical  College  which  was  a 
Class  B  college,  and  has  since  ceased  to  exist.  All  the  other  unsuc- 
cessful applicants  were  from  colleges  outside  of  the  state.  Only 
two  applicants  in  the  three  years,  1915,  '16,  '17,  from  the  Medical 
Department  of  the  University  of  Alabama,  located  in  Mobile,  failed 
to  pass,  while  50  applicants  from  the  Birmingham  Medical  College 
failed  in  the  same  period.  This  is  a  most  eloquent  and  convincing 
argirment  for  the  high  standard  of  the  Medical  Department  of  the 
State  University  as  compared  with  the  outside  Medical  Colleges, 
as  well  as  with  a  Class  B  school. 

PUBLIC   HEALTH   EDUCATION 

While  the  State  Board  of  Health  is  supposed  to  carry  on  from 
time  to  time  a  campaign  of  health  education  throughout  the  state, 
no  money  is  furnished  to  employ  competent  instructors,  and  the 
force  at  the  disposal  of  the  Board  is  so  limited  and  their  duties  so 
varied  and  onerous,  that  it  is  all  they  can  do  to  investigate  the  com- 
plaints coming  in  from  various  sections. 

The  legislature  has  never  recognized  the  fact  that  public  health 
work  is  largely  a  matter  of  popular  education;  that  money  expended 
in  this  way  brings  large  returns,  and  is  not  a  mere  "frill."     They 


Public  Health  35 

have  seen  this  so  far  as  the  agricultural  and  animal  industry  in- 
terests are  concerned,  but  not  with  regard  to  public  health. 

An  arrangement  has  been  perfected  with  the  Children's  Bureau 
at  Washington  whereby  1,200  franked  envelopes  are  furnished  the 
State  Board  of  Health  each  month  with  literature  on  prenatal  care 
and  the  care  of  the  baby.  This  is  mailed  to  the  new  mothers  of  the 
state  reported  each  month.  It  is  the  foundation  for  more  effective 
educational  work  by  a  state  child  hygiene  bureau  when  authority 
to  establish  such  a  bureau  is  granted  by  the  legislature. 

Since  January,  1918,  the  social  service  assistant  of  the  Scottish 
Rite  Masons  of  Mobile  has  been  working  under  the  direction  of  the 
State  Health  Officer,  conducting  health  campaigns  in  a  number  of 
counties,  stressing  particularly  the  necessity  of  employment  by  the 
counties  of  public  health  nurses.  Now  the  Scottish  Rite  Masons  of 
Montgomery  are  supplying  the  State  Health  Officer  with  funds  to 
pay  the  traveling  expenses  in  the  campaign. 

Not  only  has  this  work  been  highly  successful,  but  the  several 
counties  in  which  it  has  been  carried  on  have  made  more  or  less 
permanent  aiTangements  for  continuing  and  enlarging  it  themselves. 
One  of  the  special  features  of  this  work  is  the  co-operation  of  the 
Alabama  Federation  of  Women's  Clubs,  which  in  conjunction  with 
this  social  service  assistant  has  carried  on  a  campaign  of  education 
among  the  women's  clubs  of  the  state  with  a  view  to  furnishing  a 
public  health  nurse  to  assist  the  State  Health  Officer  in  his  plans. 

COUNTY   HEALTH   OFFICER 

The  law  provides  for  two  types  of  county  health  officer,  those 
devoting  only  a  portion  of  their  time,  who  are  known  as  part-time 
health  officers,  and  those  who  devote  their  entire  time  to  the  office, 
and  are  known  as  all-time  health  officers.  There  are  67  counties, 
57  having  part-time  and  10  having  all-time  health  officers. 

The  duties  of  part-time  health  officers  are:  (1)  to  keep  and  file 
a  register  of  births  and  deaths  and  infectious  diseases.  This  duty  is 
set  forth  in  minute  detail,  yet  with  regard  to  an  all-time  health 
officer,  it  is  required  only  by  implication,  as  he  is  to  make  such  reports 
as  may  bercquired  on  blanks  prescribed  by  the  State  Board  of  Health. 
It  has  been  shown  that  in  the  matter  of  recording  vital  statistics, 
the  county  health  officers  have  been  negligent.    That  they  have  been 


36  Child  Welfare  in  Alabama 

derelict  in  other  duties  as  well  is  equally  evident.  On  account  of  the 
unsatisfactory  work  of  many  of  the  part-time  health  officers,  the 
State  Health  Officer  has  endeavored  to  obtain  better  results  by  urging 
county  medical  societies  to  place  more  competent  men  in  the  position. 

(2)  To  have  general  supervision  over  the  sanitary  interests  of  the 
county.  Due  to  lack  of  real  authority  to  abate  nuisances  the  county 
health  officer  can  do  little  more  than  advise ;  consequently  little  more 
than  that  has  been  attempted,  much  less  accomplished.  This  is  an 
added  reason  for  the  revision  of  the  laws  regulating  the  abatement 
of  nuisances. 

(3)  To  visit  all  cases  of  contagious  diseases.  The  part-time 
officers  have  been  reasonably  attentive  to  this  part  of  their  duty. 
During  the  fall  of  1917  and  spring  of  1918  the  entire  state  was  visited 
by  an  unusually  heavy  epidemic  of  measles,  the  schools  of  the  state 
being  especially  affected.  In  almost  every  instance  the  county  health 
officers  were  on  the  alert  to  prevent  its  spread;  so  prevalent  was  it, 
however,  that  it  got  beyond  control  in  most  sections.  Although  a 
disease  usually  but  lightly  regarded  and  therefore  more  or  less  negli- 
gible, there  were  19,541  cases  with  466  deaths  reported  for  1917  and 
it  is  quite  evident  that  many  thousands  of  cases  were  not  reported. 
An  unusual  number  of  adults  were  affected,  due  largely  to  their  own 
carelessness  and  to  the  mistaken  notion  that  measles  is  a  harmless 
child's  disease.  Another  popular  error  is  prevalent,  namely,  that 
every  child  at  some  time  is  bound  to  have  it.  Some  physicians  still 
regard  the  malady  as  of  no  consequence,  thereby  giving  false  security 
to  many  parents. 

Extra  efforts  should  be  made  to  examine  all  school  children  for 
sequelae,  emphasizing  more  than  ever  the  necessity  for  an  all-time 
health  unit  to  assist  in  the  "follow  up"  from  a  school  standpoint  in 
the  early  detection  by  the  health  officer  and  public  health  nurse  of 
conditions  which  tend  to  produce  permanent  defects  in  the  child. 

The  State  Department  of  Education  considers  the  laws  relative 
to  quarantine  and  isolation  for  contagious  diseases  satisfactory 
from  a  school  standpoint.  The  health  officer  of  Barbour  County 
does  not  regard  these  regulations  as  satisfactory,  and  recommends 
that  tuberculosis  and  hookworm  cases  be  isolated;  The  health 
officer  of  Chambers  County  does  not  regard  them  as  satisfactory^ 
and  declares  that  more  stringent  laws  should  be  enacted.  The 
health  officer  of  Pickens  states  that  it  is  hard  to  formulate  a  plan, 


Public  Health  37 

especiall}'  for  rural  schools.  The  health  officer  of  Washington  County 
states  that  the  regulations  are  not  satisfactory;  that  nothing  can  be 
done  under  the  present  system. 

Ths  State  Superintendent  of  Education  was  asked:  "Do  you 
recommend  compulsory  vaccination  against  smallpox?"  His  answer 
was,  "Yes,  while  the  danger  of  spreading  in  rural  sections  is  not  as 
great  as  in  urban  communities,  still  the  only  way  to  protect  society 
against  a  sudden  spread  of  such  diseases  as  smallpox  is  rigidly  to 
enforce  the  vaccination  law." 

Much  confusion  still  seems  to  exist,  both  on  the  part  of  the  county 
medical  authorities  and  local  school  authorities  in  the  several  counties 
as  to  quarantine  and  isolation,  the  two  terms  being  used  synony- 
mously. It  is  likewise  true  that  there  is  considerable  lack  of  unifor- 
ity  in  carrying  out  these  regulations.  To  illustrate:  This  spring 
in  a  certain  town  of  this  state,  an  outbreak  of  smallpox  occurred. 
Considerable  friction  arose  between  the  school  authorities  and  the  local 
health  authorities  because  a  local  physician  having  a  case  of  smallpox 
in  his  family  insisted  that  two  of  his  children  who  had  been  success- 
fully vaccinated,  be  permitted  to  attend  school.  The  patrons  of 
the  school  protested  against  the  presence  of  these  children  in  the 
school,  while  the  father  insisted  there  was  no  danger  because  they 
had  been  successfully  vaccinated,  and  the  case  was  properly  "quar- 
antined." Whether  this  particular  case  was  isolated  or  quarantined, 
the  facts  do  not  show,  but  it  is  typical  of  the  looseness  in  which  the 
terms  are  used  in  speaking  of  a  case  of  contagion  and  applied  in 
practice.  If  the  case  had  been  really  isolated  in  this  particular 
instance,  there  would  have  been  no  danger  of  contagion,  but  if  the 
case  was  only  quarantined,  there  might  have  been  danger  of  infection. 
This  illustrates  very  forcibly  how  the  self-interest  of  a  part-time 
health  officer  sometimes  conflicts  with  his  official  duties. 

It  is  therefore  recommended  that  the  State  Health  Officer  and 
the  vSuperintendent  of  Education  conjointly  formulate  and  issue  a 
series  of  regulations  for  the  guidance  of  county  health  officers  and 
school  teachers,  naming  the  several  communicable  diseases  affecting 
school  attendance;  defining  isolation  and  quarantine;  giving  the 
period  of  required  absence  for  children  suffering  from  such  diseases; 
governing  the  return  of  such  pupils  to  school;  and  requiring  the 
furnishing  of  a  physician's  certificate  before  returning  to  school. 

While  it  is  true  that  most  of  these  points  are  now  embodied  in 


145530 


38  Child  Welfare  in  Alabama 

either  the  health  or  school  regulations,  there  is  no  correlation  between 
them,  nor  are  they  in  any  concrete  form  easily  available  for  the 
guidance  of  either  the  health  officer  or  the  school  teacher. 

(4)  Obtaining  vaccine  virus  for  the  purpose  of  vaccinating  all 
indigent  persons.  This  is  a  corrollary  of  the  preceding  clause  and  has 
generally  been  carried  out.  There  again  is  the  conflict  between  the 
self-interest  of  the  private  practitioner  and  his  official  duties  as 
health  officer.  No  class  of  citizens  is  more  faithful  to  dutyor  self- 
sacrificing  as  a  rule  than  the  medical  profession,  but  there  are  so 
many  loopholes  for  negligence  because  the  part-time  health  officer's 
first  duty  is  to  himself  in  endeavoring  to  make  a  living;  therefore 
he  should  not  in  the  best  interest  of  public  health  be  placed  in  such 
an  equivocal  position. 

(5)  To  visit  county  jails,  convict  camps,  county  almshouses, 
county  court  houses  and  other  county  buildings  for  the  purpose  of  in- 
specting their  sanitary  conditions.  This  is  a  duplication  of  the  work 
of  the  State  Prison  Inspector  so  far  as  jails,  almshouses  and  convict 
camps  are  concerned.  There  is  no  co-ordination  between  these  two 
inspections.  If  the  sanitary  conditions  of  the  county  court  houses 
throughout  the  state  is  an  index  of  the  efficiency  of  the  county  health 
officers,  then  almost  without  exception,  they  are  guilty  of  the  grossest 
negligence.  The  sanitary  conditions  of  the  court  houses  are  almost 
as  bad  as  the  almshouses;  that  is  saying  a  great  deal  in  a  few  words. 
They  are  both  positively  a  disgrace  to  the  state. 

(6  to  14,  inclusive)  These  deal  with  making  reports,  attending 
meetings,  and  other  administrative  functions  of  the  county  health  officer. 

The  failure  of  part-time  health  officers  promptly  to  make  re- 
ports is  notorious.  The  records  of  many  are  in  such  shape  as  to  be 
practically  worthless  for  the  prupose  of  obtaining  satisfactory  or 
exact  information. 

To  learn  the  sentiment  of  the  county  health  officers  of  the 
several  counties  surveyed  as  to  the  present  health  system,  a  series 
of  questions  was  submitted.  To  the  question,  "Do  you  regard  the 
present  health  system  of  Alabama  as  satisfactory,  or  would  you 
prefer  some  other  system?"  most  of  the  replies  held  the  system 
satisfactory  but  pointed  out  the  inability  to  get  results  because  of 
lack  of  money. 

To  the  question,  "Do  you  favor  an  all-time  health  unit  for  your 
county?"    all  who  repHed  answered,  "Yes." 

The  question,  "Is  there  any  sentiment  for  or  against  such  a 


Public  Health  39 

unit  in  your  county?"  brought  answers  of  "No,"  "Both  for  and 
against,"  "All  in  favor  but  no  money,"  while  Jefferson  and  Tusca- 
loosa Counties  reported  having  adopted  it. 

It  is  therefore  quite  evident  that  the  one  weak  spot  in  the 
health  system  of  Alabama  is  the  lack  of  all-time  health  officers  in  the 
several  counties.  Even  the  two  rich  and  populous  counties  contain- 
ing the  large  cities  of  Montgomery  and  Mobile  do  not  have  all-time 
officers.  Except  in  twelve  counties,  the  county  health  officer  de- 
votes only  such  time  to  the  work  as  he  sees  fit,  as  he  is  usually  a  very 
busy  practitioner,  and  since  his  practice  is  his  first  care,  he  cannot 
be  expected  for  the  pittance  he  receives  to  neglect  his  private  work; 
for  no  man  can  serve  two  masters.  Again  no  health  officer  engaged 
in  the  active  practice  of  his  profession  can  secure  the  full  co-opera- 
tion of  his  fellow  practitioners;  this  is  especially  true  in  rural  sections, 
where  lines  are  usually  more  or  less  sharply  drawn.  Then,  too,  such  a 
part-time  health  officer  frequently  finds  his  official  duties  in  conflict 
with  his  professional  interests,  and  it  is  only  natural  that  he  should 
follow  the  line  of  least  resistance,  resulting  in  important  and  neces- 
sary public  duties  being  neglected  and  unperformed. 

A  questionnaire  was  sent  to  the  county  health  officers  of  the 
following  counties,  requesting  certain  data;  most  of  them,  however, 
failed  to  answer,  showing  how  little  interest  they  take  in  their  office, 
or  that  they  are  too  busy  with  other  matters  to  give  proper  attention 
to  its  exacting  duties.  Nor  is  this  surprising  when  the  meager 
salar}^  paid  them  is  considered;  in  the  typical  counties  having  only 
part-time  health  officers,  it  is  money  thrown  awa}'. 

County  Type  Salary 

Barbour Part-time $660 

Chambers Part-time 720 

Chilton Part-time no  report 

Conecuh Part-time no  report 

Escambia Part-time no  report 

Etowah Part-time no  report 

Hale Part-time no  report 

Jefferson All-time 5,000 

Lauderdale Part-time no  report 

Madison All-time $3,500 

Mobile Part-time no  report 

Montgomery Part-time no  report 

Pickens All-time $2,250 

Washington Part-time 289 


40  Child  Welfare  in  Alabama 

Not  only  is  the  force  at  the  command  of  the  State  Board  of 
Health  wholly  inadequate  but  the  counties  for  the  most  part  have 
been  derelict  in  such  matters  when  they  have  had  a  remedy  in  their 
own  hands,  namely,  the  authority  to  provide  an  all-time  health 
officer. 

Subdivision  2,  section  706,  page  14  of  the  Medical  Laws  of 

Alabama,  1916  reads: 

Whenever  the  court  of  county  commissioners  or  board  of  revenue  of 
any  county  shall  deem  it  wise  to  provide  a  covmty  health  officer  who  shall 
devote  all  of  his  time  to  the  duties  of  his  office,  and  so  declare  by  order 
entered  on  the  minutes  of  such  court  or  board,  it  shall  be  the  duty  of  the 
president  of  the  county  board  of  health,  except  of  such  counties  as  have 
already  employed  health  officers  for  all  of  their  time,  to  issue  a  call  for  a 
meeting  of  said  board,  giving  the  members  thereof  not  less  than  ten  or 
fifteen  days  notice  of  the  meeting  and  further  informing  them  that  the 
object  of  the  meeting  is  to  provide  for  a  county  health  officer  who  shall 
devote  his  entire  time  to  official  work.  When  the  county  board  of  health 
meets  as  above  provided  for,  not  less  than  a  majority  of  the  members  thereof 
being  present,  said  board  shall  proceed  to  remove  the  incumbent  county 
health  officer  from  office  and  to  declare  the  office  vacant,  the  officer  so 
removed  being  eligible  for  election  to  the  new  office.  The  county  board  of 
health  shall  then  proceed  to  elect  a  county  health  officer  who  shall  devote 
his  entire  time  to  the  duties  of  his  office.  The  county  board  of  health  shall 
then  instruct  the  secretary  thereof  to  notify  the  court  of  county  commis- 
sioners or  board  of  revenue  that  a  health  officer  has  been  elected  by  the 
county  for  a  term  of  three  years,  giving  the  name  and  address  of  the  officer 
so  elected,  such  officer  to  devote  his  entire  time  in  promoting  the  health  of 
the  people  of  the  county. 

This  survey  shows  that  one  of  the  chief  objections  to  the  system 
on  the  part  of  the  laity  is  that  if  they  make  complaint  of  inattention 
or  negligence  on  the  part  of  a  county  health  officer,  the  local  board 
of  health  either  pays  no  attention  to  the  charges,  or  if  a  trial  is  had, 
the  health  officer  by  reason  of  local  influences,  is  always  sustained. 

Again  if  there  be  factional  politics  in  the  county  medical  society, 
as  has  been  found  in  some  instances,  without  the  right  of  appeal 
either  on  the  part  of  the  said  official  or  the  losing  faction,  a  factional 
majority  for  or  against  the  county  health  officer  can  work  a  hardship. 

In  several  of  the  counties  it  has  been  found  that  public  health 
conditions  have  suffered  by  reason  of  local  influences  without  redress 
through  a  court  of  review  free  from  such  local  influences.  It  is  be- 
lieved that  an  amendment  to  the  code  providing  for  such  an  appeal 
would  very  largely,  if  not  entirely,  remove  this  source  of  complaint, 


Public  Health  41 

since  in  a  number  of  counties  both  the  laity  and  physicians  have 
ceased  to  be  active  in  health  matters,  because  they  have  felt,  whether 
justly  or  not,  that  they  could  accomplish  nothing,  all  their  efforts  hav- 
ing failed  on  account  of  this  vicious  circle.  This  applies  especially 
to  counties  having  only  part-time  health  officers. 

The  present  code  provides  for  an  investigation  for  neglect  of 
duty  on  the  part  of  a  county  health  officer,  but  provides  no  appeal 
from  the  county  society.  The  State  Board  of  Health  has  authority 
to  notify  the  county  commissioners  of  the  negligence  of  any  county 
health  officer  whereupon  there  is  a  suspension  of  payment  of  salary. 
Provision  is  made  for  the  investigation  of  such  charges  and  penalties 
are  prescribed  upon  conviction  for  failure  or  negligence. 

The  procedure  is  laid  down  in  paragraph  11,  section  703: 

To  investigate  the  charges  and  specifications  against  health  officers, 
county  or  municipal  as  follows: 

Whenever  a  member  of  a  county  medical  society,  the  executive  ofhcer 
of  the  State  Board  of  Health,  or  other  persons  submit  written  charges  and 
specifications  against  the  health  officer  of  a  county,  or  health  officer  of  a 
municipality  therein  to  such  society  for  investigation  and  report,  and  shall 
instruct  the  secretary  of  the  society  to  furnish  the  health  officer  against 
whom  charges  and  specifications  are  submitted,  and  the  board  of  censors 
to  which  they  were  referred,  certified  copies  thereof.  The  board  of  censors 
shall  then  appoint  a  time  and  place  for  investigating  the  charges  and  speci- 
fications and  shall  notify  the  health  officer  concerned,  and  the  party  or  part- 
ies making  the  charges  and  specifications  of  the  time  and  place  for  the  hear- 
ing, and  shall  further  notify  said  parties  that  they  will  be  accorded  the 
privilege  of  being  heard  in  person,  or  by  counsel,  or  both,  and  of  intro- 
ducing such  witnesses  and  written  testimony  as  may  be  germane  to  the 
question  at  issue. 

When  the  investigation  has  been  completed  and  the  board  of  censors 
is  ready  to  report,  it  shall  notify  the  president  of  the  county  medical  society 
of  that  fact,  whereupon  the  president  shall  call  a  meeting  of  the  society, 
unless  the  time  for  a  regular  meeting  is  at  hand,  giving  the  members  not 
less  than  five  full  days  notice  thereof  and  explaining  to  them  the  object  of 
the  meeting. 

When  the  county  medical  society  meets  in  accordance  with  such  notice, 
the  board  of  censors  shall  submit  a  complete  and  circumstantial  report  of 
the  investigation  with  which  it  was  charged.  After  hearing  the  report  and 
after  such  discussion  thereof  as  may  be  deemed  proper  by  the  presiding 
officer,  the  society  may  take  action  in  either  of  the  following  ways: 

(a)  It  may  entirely  exonerate  the  health  officer; 

(b)  It  may  censure  him; 

(c)  It  may  impose  a  forfeiture  of  salary  for  such  period  of  time  as  the 
society  may  deem  just  and  proper; 


42  Child  Welfare  in  Alabama 

(d)     It  may  remove  the  health  officer  from  his  position  to  take  effect 

in  not  less  than  ten  or  more  than  fifteen  days,  all  ballots  being  taken  by 

ayes  and  noes  and  recorded  in  the  minutes  of  the  meeting.    When  the  verdict 

rendered  is  removal  from  office,  it  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  county  medical 

society  to  hold  another  meeting  before  the  time  arrives  for  the  health  officer 

to  retire  from  office,  for  the  purpose  of  electing  a  successor,  provided  that  the 

officer  just  removed  shall  not  be  eligible  to  succeed  himself. 

The  code  should  be  strengthened  by  an  amendment  requiring 

the  State  Board  of  Health  to  review  the  proceedings  and  findings 

of  such  trial  for  ratification,  amendment  or  rejection,  as  the  case  may 

be,  to  be  final  and  binding  upon  the  county  medical  society.     This 

would  act  in  the  nature  of  an  unbiased  court  of  appeals  removed  from 

local  influences. 

It  is  further  recommended  that  when  a  county  health  officer  is 
removed  on  the  recommendation  of  the  State  Board  of  Health,  he 
be  not  eligible  for  employment  in  a  similar  capacity  in  the  county 
from  which  he  was  removed. 

An  all-time  health  officer  is  not  desirable  unless  he  has  had 
technical  training  in  public  health  work.  The  phrase  all-time  health 
officer  should  be  changed  to  that  of  a  county  health  unit,  which 
would  have  a  minimum  personnel  of:  (1)  all-time  health  officer, 
(2)  oublic  health  nurse,  (3)  a  laboratory  director,  (4)  sanitary  in- 
spector, (5)  milk  and  meat  inspector.  The  health  officer  should 
be  a  trained  man  and  should  train  the  other  members  of  his  force, 
except  the  public  health  nurse  and  milk  inspector,  both  of  whom 
should  be  experts. 

It  is  therefore  recommended  that  the  code  be  so  amended  as  to 
make  an  all-time  health  unit  obligatory  in  every  county  instead  of 
leaving  it  optional  as  at  present  with  the  county  commissioners  or 
board  of  revenue  to  provide  an  all-time  health  officer  only.  This 
all-time  health  unit  to  consist  of  an  all-time  health  officer;  a  public 
health  nurse ;  a  laboratory  assistant ;  and  an  inspector.  The  health 
officer  and  the  public  health  nurse  to  be  nominated  by  the  board  of 
censors  of  the  county  medical  society  from  a  list  of  persons  declared 
by  the  state  board  of  medical  examiners  to  be  qualified ;  the  election 
to  be  ratified  by  the  county  medical  society,  compensation  to  be 
based  as  now  upon  population,  the  minimum  of  population,  however, 
to  be  lowered  and  the  minimum  of  salary  to  be  raised,  salaries  to  be 
preferred  claims  payable  in  cash  and  not  in  warrants.  Otherwise  com- 
petent scientific  applicants  would  not  be  attracted  to  such  positions. 


Public  Health  43 

It  has  been  urged  as  one  of  the  faults  of  the  present  system  that 
in  the  selection  of  an  all-time  county  health  officer  local  factional 
medical  poHtics  are  likely  to  play  a  part,  resulting  frequently  in  the 
selection  of  men  who  are  not  qualified  for  the  position,  thereby 
defeating  the  purpose.  B}^  requiring  appHcants  to  pass  an  examina- 
tion demonstrating  their  competency  along  public  health  lines 
prescribed  by  the  state  board  of  medical  examiners  as  recommended, 
this  very  undesirable  feature  will  be  eliminated.  It  is  generally 
recognized  that  the  usual  county  or  small  town  practitioner  and  even 
the  average  city  physician  has  had  no  special  training  in  public 
health  work,  and  unless  a  competent  man  is  secured,  it  will  not  only 
be  a  waste  of  money  devoid  of  results,  but  in  fact  a  step  backward. 

The  examination  of  the  board  of  medical  examiners  of  Alabama  • 
has  the  reputation  of  being  one  of  the  most  difficult  in  the  United 
States  to  pass,  and  every  doctor  in  the  state  is  proud  of  that  repu- 
tation. Why  then  should  the  board  not  be  entrusted  with  the 
additional  duty  of  examining  persons  for  public  health  work?  When 
it  becomes  known  that  there  are  openings  for  competent  men  at 
reasonable  salaries,  the  position  removed  from  political  factionalism 
with  a  reasonable  tenure  of  office,  high  grade  men  will  apply. 

It  has  been  suggested  that  in  the  selection  of  an  all-time  county 
health  officer  it  might  be  well  to  include  some  provision  whereby 
the  county  commissioners  or  board  of  revenue  would  confirm  the 
selection  of  such  an  officer  or  in  some  way  be  consulted,  on  the 
theory  that  it  is  hardly  fair  to  require  a  board  to  finance  a  propo- 
sition where  it  is  not  consulted  as  to  the  personnel,  or  term,  or  tenure 
of  the  office.  It  would  seem,  however,  that  with  the  safeguards 
above  noted  such  a  procedure  would  be  really  unnecessary. 

In  no  instance  has  it  been  found  that  a  part-time  health  officer 
had  devoted  sufficient  time  to  the  duties  of  his  office.  In  a  number 
of  instances  they  have  not  even  given  proper  attention  to  the  actual 
complaints  brought  to  their  notice,  to  say  nothing  of  any  real  con- 
structive work  in  preventive  medicine.  On  the  contrary  where 
there  are  all-time  health  units  a  very  marked  change  for  the  better  is 
noted.  This  of  course  is  to  be  expected  where  the  entire  time  is 
devoted  to  the  duties  of  the  office  and  the  enforcement  of  health 
ordinances  made  impersonal. 

While  the  county  commissioners  of  the  several  counties  have  for 
some  years  possessed  the  right  of  appropriating  sufficient  funds  to 


44  Child  Welfare  in  Alabama 

employ  an  all-time  health  officer,  only  five  counties  up  to  the  present 
year  availed  themselves  of  the  privilege  in  the  order  established,  viz : 
Walker;  Tuscaloosa;  Elmore;  Talladega;  Jefferson.  Of  the  five, 
Walker  County  was  the  first  rural  county  in  the  south  to  adopt  an 
all-time  health  officer,  following  an  intensive  sanitary  campaign 
several  years  ago  in  conjunction  with  the  International  Health  Board. 
During  this  year  several  more  counties  have  been  added  to  the 
list,  viz:  Madison,  Pickens,  Choctaw  and  Lauderdale;  and  Colbert 
has  ordered  the  election  of  an  all-time  health  officer. 


TUBERCULOSIS 

The  1916  report  shows  that  in  the  entire  state  there  were  2,898 
cases  of  pulmonary  tuberculosis  reported  with  2,526  deaths,  or  about 
90  per  cent  mortality  of  reported  cases.  The  state  death  rate  for 
that  year  from  tuberculosis  was  10.4  per  cent.  In  1917  there  were 
3,207  cases  and  2,689  deaths  reported.  From  these  figures  it  is  clearly 
evident,  first,  that  the  doctors  throughout  the  state  have  not  been 
reporting  all  the  cases  of  tuberculosis;  second,  that  very  few  incipi- 
ent cases  have  been  reported  since  all  but  about  300  in  1916  and  600 
in  1917  out  of  about  3,000  cases  each  year,  died.  In  the  several 
counties  also  in  nearly  every  instance,  the  cases  reported  almost 
equal  the  number  of  deaths  reported. 

The  difficulty  of  obtaining  accurate  statistics  of  this  kind  is 
two-fold:  first,  in  such  preventable  diseases  as  tuberculosis,  pellagra 
and  hookworm,  especially  in  rural  sections,  the  incipient  cases  are 
neither  seen  nor  treated  by  physicians.  As  a  rule  it  is  only  the  pro- 
nounced cases  that  come  under  their  observation,  which  of  course 
accounts  for  a  large  number  of  cases  not  being  reported ;  and  second, 
there  being  no  adequate  penalty  attached  for  failure  to  report  cases 
nor  sufficient  inspection  to  detect  failure  in  reporting  such  cases,  the 
figures  are  unreliable.  The  same  is  true  in  a  less  degree  of  births  and 
deaths. 

The  legislature  of  1915  authorized  the  purchase  of  a  tract  of 
land  for  a  state  tuberculosis  sanitorium.  One  suitable  for  the  pur- 
pose was  purchased  in  Cullman  County,  but  no  appropriation  being 
available  for  the  erection  or  maintenance  of  buildings,  the  land  is 
lying  idle.  An  effort  will  be  made  to  induce  the  incoming  legisla- 
ture to  provide  sufficient  funds  at  least  to  make  a  start. 


PiiUic  Health  45 

The  1915  legislature  passed  an  act  to  prevent  the  spread  of  tuber- 
culosis by  the  creation  of  a  tuberculosis  commission,  to  provide  for 
its  organization  and  work,  and  to  authorize  the  erection  and  main- 
tenance of  local  hospitals  under  its  supervision;  said  commission 
to  consist  of  nine  members,  of  whom  the  State  Health  Oflficer  shall 
be  one,  ex-officio,  four  to  be  physicians.  An  anti-tuberculosis  com- 
mission has  been  created,  but  although  the  State  Health  Officer  is 
by  law  a  member  of  it,  he  has  not  been  advised  of  its  personnel. 
It  has  made  no  financial  report;  it  has  acquired  no  property;  has 
no  real  powers.  The  Anti-Tuberculosis  League  has  done  nothing 
in  the  way  of  co-operating  with  the  Anti-Tuberculosis  Commission, 
nor  with  the  State  Board  of  Health. 

As  neither  the  Anti-Tuberculosis  Commission  nor  the  board  of 
trustees  of  the  tuberculosis  sanitarium  has  any  definite  authority 
and  is  in  fact  superfluous,  all  such  work  properly  being  under  the 
State  Board  of  Health,  it  is  recommended  that  the  Anti-Tubercu- 
losis Commission  and  the  trustees  of  the  tuberculosis  sanitarium  be 
abolished;  that  whatever  functions  may  have  been  conferred  upon 
them  be  transferred  to  the  State  Board  of  Health;  and  that  the 
statutes  relating  to  them  be  repealed. 

The  county  boards  of  revenue  are  authorized  to  establish 
tuberculosis  hospitals  and  to  provide  for  the  payment  of  sites, 
buildings  and  maintenance,  either  separately  or  in  connection  with 
an  adjoining  county  or  counties.  It  further  provides  that  the  super- 
intendent must  be  a  physician,  and  in  counties  whose  population 
does  not  exceed  50,000,  the  superintendent  may  also  serve  as  county 
health  officer,  provided,  however,  that  if  he  holds  both  offices,  he 
shall  not  engage  in  the  private  practice  of  medicine.  Such  an  ar- 
rangement is  likely  to  result  in  conflict  of  authority  as  there  is  no 
provision  giving  the  State  Board  of  Health  active  supervision  over 
the  conduct  of  the  affairs  of  such  hospitals,  and  because  of  his  dual 
capacity  as  county  health  officer  elected  by  the  county  medical 
society,  and  hospital  superintendent  appointed  by  the  Alabama 
Tuberculosis  Commission. 

It  is  therefore  recommended  that  this  law  be  changed  so  that 
such  an  officer  cannot  act  in  a  dual  capacity,  particularly  if  county 
health  officers  be  made  all-time  health  officers,  as  it  is  practically 
impossible  for  a  county  health  officer  who  attempts  to  do  his  duty  with 
frequent  absences  from  home,  adequately  to  supervise  any  institution. 


46  Child  Welfare  in  Alabama 

PELLAGRA 

The  number  of  cases  of  pellagra  reported  in  1917  was  1,604 
with  1,073  deaths,  In  three  years,  the  cases  of  this  disease  reported 
have  more  than  doubled  in  number.  Whether  the  increase  was  due 
to  better  observance  of  the  regulations  including  this  as  a  report- 
able disease  or  to  ability  to  make  a  diagnosis  because  of  the  publicity 
given  to  the  subject  in  the  last  few  years,  or  to  an  actual  spread  of 
the  disease,  it  is  difficult  to  say;  probably  all  three  were  factors. 

The  increase  in  the  number  of  cases  among  children  is  marked 
although  from  the  very  nature  of  the  case  there  are  few  records  in 
the  state  upon  which  accurate  conclusions  can  be  based.  General 
observation  shows  that  in  the  cotton  mill  districts  pellagra  is  quite 
frequent  among  the  children  as  well  as  the  adults.  The  rural  dis- 
tricts seem  to  furnish  the  greater  number  of  cases,  especially  in  chil- 
dren. Even  if  the  dietetic  cause  of  the  disease  is  not  accepted,  it 
is  an  undisputed  fact  that  the  patients,  not  too  far  advanced  in  the 
disease,  when  placed  on  a  balanced  ration  usually  improve  to  a 
marked  degree  in  uncomplicated  cases.  Lack  of  medical  inspection 
in  the  schools  generally  throughout  the  state  is  responsible  for  the 
failure  to  discover  most  of  these  early  cases.  Pellagra,  tuberculosis 
and  hookworm,  three  of  the  most  prevalent  preventable  diseases 
in  children,  may  be  said  to  depend  in  a  large  measure  upon  a  deficient 
diet,  not  so  much  as  to  quantity,  as  to  its  unbalanced  character. 

The  school  girl  should  be  taught  the  art  of  cooking  because 
upon  her  knowledge  and  skill  will  depend  the  proper  care  of  her 
future  household.    This  is  a  genuine  health  problem. 

PUBLIC   SCHOOLS  AND   PUBLIC  HEALTH 

The  county  superintendents  of  education  were  asked,  "How 
many  pupils  in  your  county  were  absent  during  the  last  scholastic 
year  from  whooping  cough,  diphtheria,  smallpox,  pellagra,  malaria, 
hookworm,  tuberculosis?"  Chambers,  "quite  a  number;"  Chilton, 
"no  record;"  Conecuh,  "whooping  cough  150,  smallpox  175, 
pellagra  7,  malaria  8,  hookwoiTn  200,  tuberculosis  3;"  Escambia, 
"50  per  cent;  if  measles  included,  90  per  cent;"  Etowah,  "several 
hundred;"  Lauderdale,  "200;"  Montgomery,  "several;"  Pickens, 
"no  record  kept;"  Washington,  "I  cannot  answer  definitely;  there 
was  some  smallpox  in  the  county  and  considerable  whooping  cough;" 
Mobile,  "no  data  as  to  the  specific  causes  of  absence  due  to  sickness, 


Public  Health  47 

but  the  total  days  reported  for  the  term  are  33,000."  No  doubt  each 
of  the  diseases  mentioned  contributed  some  days  of  absence  to  this 
nimiber,  with  probably  the  largest  number  for  smallpox,  measles 
and  whooping  cough. 

The  State  Superintendent  of  Education  was  asked  whether 
there  was  any  provision  for  the  detection  or  prevention  or  treatment 
of  hookworm  in  the  rural  schools;  reply:  "no,  except  in  isolated 
cases."  "Have  you  any  data,  or  if  no  data,  any  impression  as  to 
hookwonii  or  malaria,  as  a  causative  contributive  factor  in  illiteracy?" 
Answer,  "no  information."  It  is  a  significant  coincidence,  however, 
that  in  those  districts  where  hookworm  and  malaria  are  prevalent, 
ilHteracy  is  also  widespread. 

It  is  recommended  that  pupils  be  required  before  being  admitted 
after  absence  from  school,  to  furnish  a  certificate  upon  a  blank  form 
prepared  jointly  by  the  State  Superintendent  of  Education  and  the 
State  Health  Officer,  showing  the  number  of  days  absent  and  the 
cause,  and  if  because  of  illness,  stating  the  disease  and  ailment; 
the  mere  statement  "sickness"  not  to  be  accepted.  This  will  give  a 
basis  for  exact  information  to  determine  whether  the  cause  of  ab- 
sence is  economic,  physical,  or  delinquency  of  either  parent  or  pupil. 
Too  great  a  loss  is  being  sustained  by  the  state  to  permit  either  of 
these  conditions  to  persist  when  they  can  be  prevented. 

Sanitary  Closets. 

The  county  superintendents  were  asked,  "How  many  of  your 
rural  schools  have  sanitary  closets?"  Typical  replies  were:  "About 
one-fourth;"  "ten;"  "very  few;"  "none;"  The  State  Depart- 
ment of  Education  has  no  data  on  the  subject. 

The  department  states  that  the  boards  of  education  in  one  or 
two  counties  had  passed  resolutions  requiring  sanitary  closets  in 
rural  schools  under  penalty  of  closing  schools  for  failure  to  comply 
with  the  order,  but  no  record  had  been  filed  with  the  department. 
In  response  to  the  query:  "What  do  you  recommend  as  to  inspec- 
tion of  sanitary  conditions  in  rural  school  houses  with  power  to 
clean  up  condemned  schools?"  The  reply  was:  "The  public  school 
authorities  should  have  authority  only  to  close  or  condemn  schools, 
except  in  cases  of  serious  epidemics  and  where  it  is  necessary  to  en- 
force a  rigid  quarantine.  The  health  authorities  should  urge  the 
necessity  of  satisfactory  sanitary  conditions  at  all  schools." 


48  Child  Welfare  in  Alabama 

Sanitary  Drinking  Water. 

To  the  question,  how  many  of  your  rural  schools  have  sanitary 
drinking  water,  the  replies  were:  Chambers,  "several;"  Chilton, 
"thirteen;"  Conecuh,  "ten;"  Escambia,  "about  10  per  cent;" 
Etowah,  "three-fourths;"  Lauderdale,  "twenty;"  Mobile,  "five 
of  the  larger  schools;"  Montgomery,  "90  per  cent;"  Pickens, 
"25  per  cent;"  Washington,  "about  30  or  more  than  half,  the  water 
being  usually  obtained  from  a  well."  No  replies  from  the  other 
counties  surveyed.  The  State  Superintendent  of  Education  was 
asked,  "What  provisions  are  made  for  sanitary  drinking  water  in 
rural  schools?"  Answer,  "Every  teacher  in  the  state  is  instructed 
as  to  the  manner  of  supervising  the  sanitary  conditions  of  the  schools. 
Emphasis  is  always  placed  on  the  sanitary  drinking  facilities.  How- 
ever, in  many  cases  these  suggestions  are  not  followed,  through 
carelessness  and  often  through  lack  of  financial  support  necessary 
to  secure  suitable  water  supply." 

Such  conditions  constitute  a  prolific  source  of  infection  from 
hooksvoiTn  because  of  soil  pollution  due  to  the  lack  of  sanitary 
closets;  from  typhoid  fever  because  of  surface  drainage  into  the 
drinking  water;   and  from  flies  as  germ  carriers  from  fecal  exposure. 

The  State  Superintendent  of  Education  was  asked,  "Should  all 
pupils  in  secondary  schools  be  required  to  take  the  typhoid  vaccina- 
tion?" and  replied:  "This  is  perhaps  almost  altogether  a  technical 
question  which  should  be  answered  by  members  of  the  medical  pro- 
fession. I  should  say,  however,  that  vaccination  for  typhoid  would 
be  of  value,  especially  in  rural  sections  where  close  attention  to 
sanitation  and  hygiene  are  neglected." 

In  view  of  the  insanitary  conditions  of  rural  schools  and  bearing 
in  mind  that  a  large  number  of  cases  of  typhoid  occur  in  the  rural 
counties,  that  several  of  the  secondary  schools  and  state  schools 
have  had  outbreaks,  that  pupils  at  this  age  are  rather  susceptible 
to  the  disease,  that  they  come  from  all  parts  of  a  county  to  the 
county  high  school,  and  from  all  parts  of  the  state  to  the  state  schools, 
thus  becoming  potential  factors  in  its  possible  spread,  and  contrast- 
ing all  this  with  the  wonderful  results  obtained  by  the  United  States 
Army  in  the  prevention  of  the  disease,  it  is  recommended  that  a 
law  be  passed  making  it  obligatory  for  each  pupil  to  be  vaccinated 
against  typhoid  before  he  is  admitted  to  a  secondary  or  state  school, 
and  to  file  a  certificate  to  that  effect  with  the  principal  of  the  school. 


Public  Health  49 

The  county  superintendents  were  asked,  "Is  sanitation  or  health 
taught  in  your  schools?"  and  nearly  all  answered,  "Yes;"  Mobile 
stating,  "Physiolog}^  and  hygiene  are  taught  in  all  the  schools,  but 
sanitation  and  health  are  taught  orally  and  only  in  a  limited  way." 

The  State  Superintendent  of  Education  says  that  all  schools 
of  the  state  are  required  by  law  to  give  instruction  in  physiology 
and  hygiene;  but  as  to  whether  it  is  at  present  satisfactory,  he  adds 
that  like  all  laws  of  this  kind  where  there  is  no  definite  means  of 
supervision,  there  is  a  lack  of  uniformity  in  the  matter  of  compliance 
with  the  same;  that  while  there  are  many  schools  where  the  prin- 
ciples of  hygiene  are  observed  as  well  as  formally  presented,  there 
are  many  others  where  the  formal  principles  are  taken  up  in  con- 
nection with  the  study  of  the  text  books,  but  every  rule  and  guide 
for  health  is  violated;  that  practical  sanitation  and  hygiene  should 
be  compulsory;  that  there  is  no  provision  or  authority  either  in  the 
State  Department  of  Education  or  Department  of  Health  for  the 
carrying  on  of  school  hygiene  work  or  education;  that  in  a  course 
of  school  hygiene  should  be  presented  those  principles  that  pertain 
to  the  health  of  the  individual  and  the  community,  and  only  such 
information  as  to  the  functions  of  the  organs  and  their  anatomy 
as  is  absolutely  necessary  in  order  to  understand  the  practical  appli- 
cation of  the  laws  of  health;  that  rural  teachers  and  pupils  should 
"police"  the  schoolhouses  and  grounds  as  a  practical  application 
of  the  teaching  of  rural  hygiene  in  and  about  the  schools  as  a  part 
of  the  regular  school  work. 

The  county  superintendents  were  asked,  "How  many  teachers 
have  taken  a  course  in  rural  sanitation?"  The  answer,  "None," 
came  from  Chambers,  Chilton,  and  Escambia;  "No  record,"  from 
Etowah,  Pickens,  and  Mobile;  Conecuh,  "20;"  Lauderdale,  "2;" 
Montgomery,  "only  a  few;"  Washington,  "None  that  I  know, 
other  than  such  courses  as  are  offered  by  our  normal  schools  and  the 
school  at  Montevalle." 


Medical  Inspection  of  Schools. 

The  county  health  officer  is  charged  with  the  duty  of  examining 
the  pupils  of  the  schools  at  least  once  annually  for  the  purpose  of 
ascertaining  the  presence  of  adenoids,  enlarged  tonsils,  skin  diseases, 
spinal  curvature,  hookworm  disease,  etc.,  that  may  interfere  with 


5(5  Child  Welfare  in  Alabama 

progress  in  their  studies,  and  whenever  any  of  these  diseases  or 
defects  are  discovered,  he  must  notify  the  parent  of  the  child  affected. 

The  county  health  officers  were  asked,  "Have  you  as  county 
health  officer  made  any  examinations  of  public  school  children  for 
hookworm  or  tuberculosis?"  The  answers:  Barbour,  "No;"  Cham- 
bers, "Yes  for  tuberculosis;"  Madison,  (all-time  health  officer) 
"Yes;"  Pickens,  "Yes,  some;"  Washington,  "No."  No  replies 
from  the  others. 

They  were  also  asked,  "Have  you  in  your  capacity  as  county 
health  officer  made  any  regular  examinations  of  public  school 
children,  other  than  for  contagious  diseases?"  The  answers:  Bar- 
bour, "No;"  Chambers,  "No;"  Madison,  (all-time  health  officer) 
"Yes;"  Pickens,  (all-time  health  officer)  "Yes;"  Tuscaloosa,  (all- 
time  health  officer)  "Yes;"    Washington,  "No."     No  other  replies. 

To  the  question  "Do  you  regard  this  as  part  of  your  duty  as 
county  health  officer?"  the  answers  were:  Barbour,  "No,  not  with 
present  salary;"  Chambers,  "No;"  Madison,  (all-time)  "Yes;" 
Pickens,  "Not  required,  but  do  it  because  it  is  needful  for  the  wel- 
fare of  the  child  and  the  county;"  Tuscaloosa,  (all-time)  "Yes;" 
Washington,  "No,  unless  remuneration  granted." 

Birmingham,  Montgomery  and  Mobile  have  medical  inspec- 
tion in  their  schools  by  physicians  employed  by  the  schools.  In 
Birmingham  it  is  very  elaborate  and  effective;  in  Mobile  it  is  effi- 
cient as  far  as  it  goes,  but  only  one  physician  is  employed  for  the 
entire  county  and  his  small  salary  does  not  justify  him  in  devoting 
his  entire  time  to  the  work.  In  Montgomery  it  is  confined  to  the  city 
schools  only,  and  has  not  been  altogether  satisfactory  because  too 
little  time  is  given  to  it,  and  it  also  lacks  system. 

The  county  superintendents  were  also  asked  whether  they  had 
any  niedical  inspection  of  pupils  or  teachers  in  their  counties;  if 
so,  how  often;  whether  records  of  results  were  kept;  and  what  con- 
stituted the  examination.  Barbour  answered,  "No;"  Chilton, 
"No;"  Conecuh,  "No;"  Escambia,  "Have  no  regular  inspection 
of  school  children,  but  the  board  of  education  is  very  much  interested 
and  this  year  made  a  small  beginning.  Ph^^sicians  and  dentists 
were  persuaded  to  go  free  of  charge  and  make  investigations  of  five 
or  six  schools.  In  five  schools  examined,  a  very  poor  record  of  health 
was  made.  In  one  of  about  100  children,  90  per  cent  were  found 
affected  with  some  fonn  of  disease.     In  another,  95  per  cent  were 


Public  Health  51 

affected  with  some  form  of  hookworm,  and  in  another  not  a  single 
normal  child  was  found,  and  I  believe  the  doctors  and  dentists 
report  that  only  one  perfect  specimen  was  found  in  the  five  schools 
examined,  out  of  a  total  of  about  250  pupils.  These  it  seems  to  me 
are  sufficient  facts  to  wake  us  up  along  this  line."  (At  the  request 
of  clubs  interested  in  social  service  work,  the  writer  examined  12 
children  at  random  in  the  public  school  at  Brewton,  county  seat 
of  this  county  and  a  wealthy  town,  and  found  11  of  them  physically 
defective,  although  most  of  them  were  children  of  well-to-do  parents.) 

Etowah,  Lauderdale,  Montgomery,  Pickens,  and  Washington 
all  answered  "No.";  Mobile,  "Yes,  in  all  our  rural  schools.  One 
thorough  inspection  in  all  rural  schools  per  term  and  in  the  suburban 
schools  and  larger  centers,  two  inspections.  Special  visits  are  made 
upon  request  of  the  principal  or  any  infonnation  expressing  the  need 
for  a  visit  from  the  medical  inspector.  Records  of  examinations  are 
kept  by  the  medical  inspectors.  The  examinations  are  made  with  the 
view  of  detecting  contagious  or  infectious  diseases  as  well  as  physical 
defects  and  weaknesses  of  the  individual  pupil.  Among  the  former 
are  included  scabies,  pediculosis,  measles,  smallpox,  diphtheria. 
Among  the  latter,  enlarged  tonsils,  adenoids,  weak  eyes.  The  ex- 
aminations are  made  by  the  medical  inspector  who  receives  $100 
per  month  during  the  school  term." 

The  social  service  assistant,  heretofore  mentioned  as  loaned 
to  the  State  Department  of  Health,  assisted  by  local  physicians 
volunteering  for  the  work,  presented  conclusive  evidence,  confirming 
the  results  of  the  examinations  of  the  draft  boards  that  rural  school 
medical  inspection  was  a  necessity,  and  should  be  made  compulsory. 

The  State  Superintendent  of  Education  says  that  no  county 
employs  a  school  medical  examiner  except  Mobile,  but  that  those 
having  all-time  health  officers  have  a  limited  service  in  the  field. 
"In  the  small  counties  the  all-time  health  officers  may  perform  the 
duties  of  the  school  medical  examiner,  and  it  matters  not  where  he 
is,  he  should  keep  in  close  touch  with  the  health  and  sanitary  condi- 
tions of  the  schools,  bringing  to  the  attention  of  the  school  authorities 
the  needs  in  this  field  and  using  the  schools  as  community  centers 
to  get  information  to  the  people  on  health  questions.  Publicity  in 
all  matters  of  this  kind  properly  directed  will  be  of  great  assistance 
to  the  health  officer.  If  the  courity  is  large  enough  to  meet  the  ex- 
pense, the  health  officer  should  have  an  assistant  who  is  a  public 


52  Child  Welfare  in  Alabama 

health  nurse.  A  combination  of  this  kind  will  make  a  very  effective 
handling  of  a  health  program  for  any  rural  county.  No  definite 
plan  whereby  the  school  is  the  center  for  community  health  activity 
has  been  formally  adopted  by  the  Department  of  Education  or  the 
State  Board  of  Health,  but  both  have  tentative  plans  to  be  inaugu- 
rated when  funds  are  available." 

The  trustees  of  the  Roman  Catholic  parochial  schools  of  the 
state  are  in  favor  of  medical  inspection  of  their  schools.  They  now 
have  it  to  some  extent  but  it  is  not  systematic,  nor  altogether  sat- 
isfactory to  them  nor  have  they  any  available  records  of  inspection. 
They  state  that  it  is  their  purpose  to  enlarge  and  perfect  the  system 
the  coming  year.  They  are  in  favor  of  compulsory  school  inspection 
but  prefer  to  provide  and  select  their  own  inspectors,  agreeing  that 
the  state  should  prescribe  the  method  and  regulations,  and  that  report 
should  be  made  of  such  examinations  to  the  proper  authorities. 

Birmingham.  The  medical  department  of  the  public  schools  of 
Birmingham  consists  of  a  medical  inspector  and  a  corps  of  trained 
nurses.  Medical  inspection  in  the  public  schools  is  under  the  control 
of  the  board  of  education  and  constitutes  a  part  of  the  educational 
work.  A  committee  of  the  American  Medical  Association  in  its  re- 
port endorses  this  plan  as  the  most  practical  and  efficient  yet  devised. 

In  the  negro  public  schools,  valuable  work  has  been  done  in  the 
improvement  of  housing  conditions  and  general  sanitation  of  homes. 
A  graduate  nurse  is  employed  to  give  instruction  in  the  negro  Indus- 
trial High  School  in  general  hygiene,  infant  nursing  and  feeding,  and 
nursing  in  convalescent  cases.  Last  year,  two  hundred  girls  of  the 
higher  classes  were  enrolled  in  this  course,  and  under  the  direction  of 
their  teacher,  they  got  out  into  the  hospitals  and  into  the  homes  of 
the  people,  and  in  many  instances  are  used  by  the  doctors  in  cases 
where  trained  nurses  cannot  be  obtained. 

A  home  and  school  visitor  is  employed  through  the  aid  of  the 
Jeanes'  Fund.  She  visits  the  schools  and  the  homes  of  the  pupils, 
encourages  school  attendance,  and  in  co-operation  with  the  trained 
nurses  employed  in  the  medical  department  and  the  nurse-training 
class  of  the  Industrial  High  School,  has  accomplished  effective 
work  in  the  improvement  of  the  conditions  of  the  negro  homes. 

The  placing  of  school  medical  inspectors  entirely  under  the 
school  authorities  may  be  effective  in  large  cities  but  in  rural  com- 
munities it  is  not  always  practicable,  especially  where  the  law  now 
requires  the  all-time  health  officer  to  make  the  examinations,  and  as 


Public  Health  53 

rural  counties  cannot  afford  separate  school  medical  inspection.  Many 
of  the  insanitary  conditions  of  a  community  are  detected  through 
the  absences  of  children  from  school,  thus  showing  the  intimate 
correlation  between  the  duties  of  an  all-time  health  officer  and  the 
school.  It  is  therefore  recommended  that  school  medical  inspection 
of  teachers  and  pupils  be  made  compulsory  for  public,  private  and 
parochial  schools;  that  such  inspection  be  made  by  the  all-time 
health  officer,  except  in  counties  or  municipalities  where  special  school 
medical  inspection  can  be  afforded ;  and  that  the  State  Health  Officer 
and  the  State  Superintendent  of  Education  jointly  formulate  and 
issue  regulations  governing  such  inspection. 

Special  Schools. 

Inquiry  as  to  open-air  schools  and  special  schools  for  the  physi- 
cally or  mentally  defective,  shows  the  lamentable  lack  of  provision 
for  such  children  in  the  state. 

Birmingham  has  one  open-air  experimental  school  and  had  a 
special  school  for  backward  children  that  was  fairly  successful. 
There  is  not  even  a  hospital  for  the  care  of  orthopedic  cases.  The 
Scottish  Rite  Masons  of  Atlanta  have  such  a  hospital,  and  at  this 
time  11  Alabama  children  are  under  treatment  there. 

School  Luncheons. 

In  many  city  schools  warm  luncheons  are  provided  at  the  noon 
hour  to  children  at  a  reasonable  price,  ranging  from  one  cent  up. 
In  Birmingham  at  all  of  the  larger  schools,  lunches  are  provided  at 
actual  cost,  under  the  direction  of  a  committee  of  the  school  im- 
provement association;  in  the  high  schools  2,500  five-cent  lunches 
were  serv^ed  each  day  last  year,  and  an  average  of  3,000  five-cent 
lunches  per  day  in  the  elementary  schools. 

School  Furniture. 

In  most  of  the  urban  and  rural  schools  the  furniture  is  such  that 
the  children  arc  in  physical  discomfort.  The  State  Superintendent 
says  "There  is  no  doubt  but  that  many  of  the  defects  of  children 
are  accentuated  if  not  produced  by  unsatisfactory  school  furniture." 

Health  and  Employment. 

The  State  Superintendent  of  Education  was  asked  whether 
he  would  recommend  a  health  certificate  as  a  prerequisite  for  the 


54  Child  Welfare  in  Alabama 

employment  of  children  and  replied,  "It  seems  that  it  will  be  emi- 
nently proper  that  every  child  employed  away  from  his  home  should 
have  a  clean  bill  of  health  furnished  by  competent  medical  authori- 
ties. The  employer  should  be  required  to  present  to  the  inspector 
health  certificates  secured  from  the  public  health  authorities  for 
all  children  employed  by  him."  Because  of  the  numerous  exceptions 
in  the  child  labor  and  compulsory  school  attendance  laws,  there 
are  many  loopholes  for  evasion,  especially  in  the  ease  with  which 
a  child  or  his  parents  can  claim  sickness  as  a  cause  of  absence  from 
school.  The  State  Superintendent  of  Education  thinlcs  that  "un- 
doubtedly there  should  be  a  better  co-ordination  of  the  laws  pertain- 
ing to  and  governing  the  relationship  of  children  to  society.  The 
compulsory  attendance  law  and  the  child  labor  law  should  be 
made  to  harmonize  and  thus  avoid  apparent  discrepancies  that  so 
often  exist  when  these  laws  are  fostered  and  advocated  by  different 
groups  of  society  unacquainted  with  the  ideals  and  aims  of  the  other. 
This  question  touches  very  clearly  the  health  problem  of  medical 
school  inspection,  school  absences  due  to  sickness,  and  health  cer- 
tificates for  employed  children,  also  the  laws  relating  to  vaccina- 
tion and  quarantine." 

School  Nurse. 

County  superintendents  of  education  were  asked,  "Have  you 
a  school  nurse,  if  so  what  compensation  does  she  receive?"  Cham- 
bers, Chilton,  Conecuh,  Escambia,  Etowah,  Lauderdale,  Mont- 
gomery, Pickens  and  Washington  all  answer  "No."  Tuscaloosa 
has  one  for  the  city  of  Tuscaloosa;  Mobile  has  two  for  the  county, 
one  of  whom  is  a  social  welfare  worker  and  one  for  the  city  schools. 
No  answer  from  the  other  counties.  The  cities  of  Birmingham, 
Montgomery  and  Tuscaloosa  also  have  school  nurses. 

To  the  question,  should  the  qualifications  of  such  school  nurse 
be  prescribed  by  the  Department  of  Health,  the  Department  of 
Education  replies  that  the  Department  of  Health  should  pass  upon 
the  technical  training  of  such  a  nurse,  but  the  character  of  service 
rendered  makes  it  necessary  that  the  public  health  nurse  be  trained 
in  social  service.  These  qualifications  should  be  passed  upon  by 
persons  whose  interests  and  activities  make  them  capable  of  evalua- 
ting the  fitness  of  applicants  for  social  service  activities." 

As  to  what  should  constitute  the  duties  of  a  public  health  school 
nurse  from  a  school  standpoint  the  State  Superintendent  replied, 


Public  Health  55 

"The  public  health  school  nurse  should  visit  the  schools  as  often 
as  possible  to  keep  in  touch  with  the  absentees  from  school,  ascer- 
tain any  cause  and  if  due  to  illness,  see  that  proper  treatment  is  pro- 
■\Hided  and  sanitary  regulations  obeyed.  This  nurse  should  be  a 
trained  dietitian  and  through  the  social  service  activities  be  able  to 
render  assistance  to  mothers,  providing  suitable  food,  not  only  for 
those  who  are  ill,  but  for  all  members  of  the  family." 

Public  Health  Nurse. 

The  present  law,  while  a  general  one  in  theory,  is  a  local  one  in 
effect  since  it  is  applicable  at  the  present  time  to  Mobile  county  only. 
Act  390,  Statutes  1915  reads  as  follows: 

Section  1.  That  the  Court  of  County  Commissioners  or  any  similar 
court  by  whatever  name,  with  Hke  jurisdiction,  of  any  county,  which  has  a 
population  of  more  than  75,000  people  and  less  than  82,000  people,  accord- 
ing to  the  last  or  any  subsequent  census,  is  hereby  authorized  and  em- 
powered to  employ  a  trained  nurse  for  the  purpose  of  visiting  and  caring 
for  the  citizens  of  said  county,  who  are  afflicted  with  any  infectious  or  con- 
tagious disease  and  to  pay  such  nurse  a  salary  of  not  more  than  $100.00 
out  of  the  general  funds  of  said  cotmty. 

Section  2.  That  any  nurse  employed  under  the  provisions  of  section  1 
of  this  act  shall  be  under  the  supervision  and  control  of  the  county  board 
of  health  of  said  county. 

This  should  be  amended  by  striking  out  that  portion  beginning 
at  line  3  which  reads:  "which  has  a  population  of  more  than  75,000 
and  less  than  82,000  people,  according  to  the  last  or  any  subsequent 
census,"  thus  making  it  applicable  to  any  county  in  the  state,  no 
matter  what  its  population.  At  present  Mobile  county  is  the  only 
county  in  the  state  employing  such  a  public  health  nurse.  As  a  mat- 
mer  of  fact,  the  history  of  this  piece  of  legislation  is,  that  it  was  en- 
acted at  the  instance  of  the  Mobile  section  of  the  Anti-Tuberculosis 
League,  having  for  its  object  the  employment  by  the  county  of  a 
visiting  tuberculosis  nurse.  Such  a  nurse  was  employed  for  several 
years  and  did  reasonably  good  work  in  spite  of  the  indifferent  sup- 
port she  received  from  the  public  in  general.  A  few  enthusiastic 
members  of  the  league  by  arduous  work  managed  in  the  face  of 
considerable  opposition  to  obtain  some  fairly  good  results.  Active 
work,  however,  on  account  of  many  discouragements,  after  a  time 
ceased.  The  nvtrse  resigned,  and  the  position  was  not  filled  until 
November  1917,  when  at  the  request  of  the  public  school  authori- 
ties, a  graduate  trained  nurse  was  appointed  to  look  after  the  de- 


56  Child  Welfare  in  Alabama 

linquent  and  defective  school  children  in  the  county.  This  nurse  is  a 
competent  one  for  the  particular  work  she  is  now  doing,  but  does  not 
claim  to  be  a  public  health  nurse,  as  that  term  is  usually  understood, 
nor  is  she  doing  real  public  health  nurse  work  in  its  larger  aspects. 

Tuscaloosa  and  Escambia  counties  expressed  a  desire  to  employ 
public  health  nurses  but  were  stopped  by  the  restriction  of  the  law 
as  above  noted.  In  the  city  of  Tuscaloosa  a  school  nurse  is  employed, 
receiving  $50.00  a  month  during  the  school  term,  and  is  paid  out  of 
the  school  funds,  but  a  good  portion  of  her  work  is  lost  because  she 
is  not  employed  by  the  year  for  "follow-up"  work. 

The  public  schools  of  the  city  of  Mobile  employ  a  nurse  as  well 
as  a  physician,  but  for  the  school  term  only.  The  Mobile  county 
schools  in  addition  to  the  public  health  nurse  as  previously  noted 
have  a  social  service  worker  employed  by  the  year,  who  serves  in 
the  dual  capacity  of  truancy  officer  for  the  county  and  social  welfare 
worker,  and  also  handles  some  medical  cases.  All  of  these  Mobile 
workers  are  doing  efficient  service.  In  those  instances  where  there 
is  part-time  employment  their  term  should  be  extended  to  cover  the 
entire  year.  In  some  of  the  counties,  especially  Escambia  County, 
the  school  authorities  were  favorable  to  the  employment  of  a  school 
nurse  and  had  the  money  to  engage  one,  but  were  unwilling  for  her  to 
be  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  county  health  authorities.  They  were 
also  of  the  opinion  that  under  the  present  law,  no  school  funds  could 
be  expended  for  such  a  nurse  unless  she  held  a  teacher's  certificate. 

The  all-time  health  officer  should  have  authority  to  appoint 
the  laboratory  assistant  and  the  inspector  or  inspectors  for  the 
reason  that  better  results  can  be  obtained  when  the  executive  officer 
has  the  power  of  selecting  and  dismissing  subordinates,  since  it  is 
self-evident  that  a  proper  esprit  de  corps  cannot  be  obtained  where 
there  is  divided  authority,  but  this  should  not  apply  as  to  the  public 
health  nurse. 

It  is  recommended:  1.  That  a  public  health  nurse  be  included 
in  each  health  unit  in  every  county. 

2.  That  she  be  required  to  pass  an  examination  prescribed 
jointly  by  the  State  Department  of  Health  and  the  State  Depart- 
ment of  Education,  and  that  nurses  be  elected  by  county  medical 
societies  only  from  a  list  furnished  by  the  State  Board  of  Health  in  a 
similar  manner  as  recommended  in  the  case  of  all-time  health  officers. 

3.  That  where  counties  can  not  or  will  not  furnish  the  funds 
for  such  nurse,  the  county  boards  of  education  be  authorized  to 


Public  Health  57 

employ  such  nurse  and  that  a  special  teacher's  certificate  be  granted 
in  order  to  comply  with  the  law  which  pennits  funds  to  be  paid  only 
to  those  holding  teachers'  certificates;  this  will  obviate  any  legal 
complications. 

4.  That  the  law  relative  to  requirements  for  teachers'  cer- 
tificates be  so  amended  as  to  give  special  certificates  to  persons  per- 
forming special  service  in  school  work,  or  that  the  State  Superin- 
tendent of  Education  be  empowered  to  accept  the  certificate  of  a 
public  health  nurse  from  the  state  board  of  medical  examiners  as  the 
equivalent  of  a  first  grade  teacher's  certificate  limited  to  the  special 
field,  and  that  such  public  health  nurse  act  as  supervisor  for  the 
teaching  and  practice  of  hygiene  in  the  public  schools  of  the  county. 

Cotton  Mill  Nurses. 

About  20  of  the  cotton  mills  employ  nurses  but  more  than  50 
do  not.  It  is  believed  that  with  the  state  furnishing  public  health 
nurses  to  guide  the  way,  most  of  these  mills  will  fall  into  line.  At 
any  rate  the  State  Board  of  Health  will  be  in  a  position  to  detect 
and  remedy  many  glaring  sanitary  evils  now  existing. 

Activities  of  Corporations. 

Attention  has  several  times  been  called  to  the  work  outside 
agencies  are  performing  in  assisting  the  public  health  work  of  the 
state.  Corporations  have  begun  to  recognize  that  the  health  of  their 
employees  is  an  asset  and  that  it  is  to  their  financial  interest  to  ex- 
pend large  sums  of  money  in  preventive  medicine  for  the  benefit  of 
their  employees.  Two  of  the  largest  of  the  corporations  will  be 
taken  to  illustrate  what  is  being  done. 

Perhaps  the  greatest  so  far  as  health  work  is  concerned  is  the 
Tennessee  Coal  &  Iron  Co.  with  its  subsidiary  plants  in  and  near 
Birmingham,  and  the  Chickasaw  Shipbuilding  Plant  at  Mobile,  in- 
volving a  population  of  50,000. 

The  state  appropriates  $26,200  for  the  work  of  the  State  Board 
of  Health  while  this  private  corporation  expends  nearly  double  that 
amount  each  year  for  the  betterment  of  the  health  conditions  at  its 
several  plants. 

In  reply  to  a  series  of  questions,  some  of  the  points  emphasized 
by  the  company  are: 

"All  children  in  the  company  schools  are  given  a  physical  ex- 
amination as  soon  as  possible  after  the  opening  of  the  school.    This 


58  Child  Welfare  in  Alabama 

is  usually  done  within  the  first  two  weeks.  Whenever  a  child  is  ill 
or  absent  from  school,  he  cannot  be  readmitted  without  a  certificate 
from  the  doctor.  Physical  examination  is  just  as  necessary  in 
primary  grades  as  in  the  higher  grades.  Primarily,  the  examination 
is  made  to  detect  cases  of  communicable  diseases  among  the  children, 
although  the  utmost  importance  is  attached  to  the  discovery  of  de- 
fects of  all  kinds,  the  remedying  of  which  will  increase  the  efficiency 
of  the  child. 

"Teachers  take  the  initiative  in  detecting  cases  in  the  school 
which  are  referred  to  the  nurse  or  doctor.  As  to  follow-up  work,  the 
teachers  call  and  find  out  why  the  children  have  been  absent.  If  a 
child  has  been  ill  or  there  is  illness  in  the  family,  it  can  only  be  re- 
admitted to  school  by  a  doctor's  certificate. 

"The  following  records  are  kept  for  the  school  and  school  nurse. 
We  have  a  baby  clinic  so  that  the  health  of  the  children  is  taken  care 
of  from  infancy  up  through  school  age  and  if  then  employed  by  the 
Tennessee  Company,  their  health  is  still  looked  after.  The  records 
for  the  school  physicians  are  kept  by  the  principal  of  the  school  and 
the  instructors,  and  for  the  baby  chnic  by  the  directors.  In  fact, 
the  doctor,  nurse,  directors,  principals  and  instructors  all  work  in 
co-operation  regarding  the  health  of  the  children. 

"Compulsory  vaccination  against  smallpox  is  not  possible  under 
the  present  state  laws,  but  it  is  hoped  that  such  a  law  will  be  passed 
in  the  near  future.  If  smallpox  is  ever  to  be  definitely  stamped  out 
of  the  state,  this  is  absolutely  necessary  and  such  a  result  can  never 
be  obtained  in  any  other  way. 

"Existing  laws  relative  to  quarantine  and  isolation  are  far  from 
satisfactory,  being  entirely  too  elastic  in  most  instances.  In  our 
own  schools  we  have  been  usually  able  to  carry  out  regulations 
much  more  rigid  than  those  provided  by  law." 

This  company  has  expended  many  thousands  of  dollars  to  place 
their  properties  in  good  sanitary  condition.  To  this  end  they  have 
laid  many  miles  of  water-mains  and  sanitary  sewers  with  the  most 
modem  appliances  for  sewage  disposal.  They  have  been  to  great 
pains  to  obtain  a  pure  water  supply,  and  in  their  engineering  depart- 
ment they  have  followed  very  closely  the  excellent  methods  of  the 
sanitary  department  of  the  Government  at  Panama.  They  also 
have  an  extensive  and  modernly  equipped  laboratory  where  all 
bacteriological  and  chemical  tests  are  employed,  not  only  in  making 
examinations  of  the  water  supply,  but  for  all  clinical  purposes. 


Public  Health  59 

"All  necessary  dental  work  on  the  school  children  is  performed 
by  salaried  dentists  employed  by  the  company.  The  dentists  held 
a  clinic  at  each  school  every  year  at  which  time  all  of  the  children's 
teeth  are  put  in  good  repair.  Every  morning  we  have  a  tooth  brush 
drill,  and  each  child  is  obliged  to  brush  his  teeth. 

"As  to  policing  the  grounds  as  a  means  of  teaching  hygiene,  if 
the  children  in  the  schools  are  taught  hygiene,  and  thoroughly  made 
to  understand  that  it  is  quite  necessary  to  keep  the  school  grounds 
clean,  and  in  good  condition,  it  becomes  a  matter  of  habit  with  them 
to  co-operate  wiih  the  instructors  in  keeping  the  grounds  in  ship 
shape,  and  therefore  it  is  not  necessary  to  police  the  grounds. 

"All  new  emploj^ees  of  the  company  undergo  a  physical  exam- 
ination before  they  are  put  out  to  work.  Any  man  who  loses  as  much 
as  two  weeks  from  work  for  any  cause  is  physically  examined  again 
before  he  is  allowed  to  return  to  work.  All  the  employees  working  in 
the  commissaries,  in  the  meat  markets  and  groceries  and  at  the  quick 
lunch  counters,  undergo  a  physical  examination  every  few  months. 

"The  Tennessee  Company  has  a  regular  department  of  health 
with  a  large  corps  of  physicians  and  sanitarians  employed  by  the  year 
to  conduct  the  health  work  at  the  various  plants,  and  several  large 
hospitals  fulty  equipped  with  every  modern  appliance  of  medical 
science  to  care  for  the  sick  and  injured.  A  sanitary  survey  of  their 
properties  is  made  at  regular  intervals  and  modem  sanitary  con- 
ditions are  the  result." 

The  American  Cast  Iron  Pipe  Company  of  Binningham  main- 
tains a  model  community.  At  the  plant  there  is  a  medical  dispensary 
equipped  with  an  emicrgency  operating  room,  a  dental  department, 
two  nurses,  white  and  negro,  on  duty  all  day,  two  physicians  and  one 
dentist  who  devote  all  of  their  time  to  work  among  the  employees, 
and  with  a  surgeon  on  call.  For  this  service  a  charge  is  made  to  em- 
ployees of  $1  per  month  for  married  men  and  50  cents  for  single  men. 

In  addition  to  the  work  of  the  medical  dispensary,  they  main- 
tain a  domestic  science  building  in  the  negro  village  and  have  a 
teacher,  who  has  equipped  and  lives  in  a  modem  home  in  the  com- 
munity, with  furnishings  of  moderate  value  within  reach  of  the 
negro  employees — this  to  teach  economy  and  judgment  in  the 
purchasing  of  household  furnishings.  This  teacher  has  classes  in 
cooking  and  housekeeping  daily  at  the  domestic  science  building, 
and  also  gives  lessons  in  canning  and  makes  demonstrations  during 
the  carming  season. 


60  Child  Welfare  in  Alabama 

Also  a  visiting  nurse  teaches  mothers  how  to  prepare  food, 
especially  for  sick  children,  and  calls  at  the  homes  of  practically 
all  employees  and  families  periodically  whether  there  is  sickness 
or  not. 

The  employees  seem,  as  a  rule,  to  appreciate  the  interest  in  them 
and  the  service  that  is  being  rendered  through  these  various  depart- 
ments. At  the  beginning  the  white  nurse  visited  the  homes  of  the 
white  employees  and  found  in  some  few  cases  that  resentment  was 
shown  to  visits  when  there  was  no  sickness;  therefore  the  visiting 
of  the  nurse  among  the  white  employees  has  been  discontinued. 
There  has  never  been  any  resentment  shown  on  the  part  of  the  negro 
employees  to  the  visiting  nurse  or  any  of  the  welfare  work;  on  the 
other  hand,  they  seem  to  appreciate  what  is  being  done. 

SUMMARY   OF  RECOMMENDATIONS 

1.  Increase  in  the  Scope  of  the  Work  of  the  State  Board  of  Health. 

That  the  legislature  increase  the  appropriation.  That  several 
sanitary  engineers  and  inspectors  be  provided  for.  That  act  530 
of  the  1915  legislature  be  transferred  to  and  incorporated  in  paragraph 
4  of  section  702,  thereby  avoiding  duplication  of  work  and  of  autho- 
rity; that  the  state  prison  inspection  act  303,  1915,  be  so  amended 
that  a  clear  correlation  of  the  duties  and  activities  of  the  office  be 
afforded;  and  that  the  State  Board  of  Health  have  administrative 
authority  over  said  office  to  avoid  duplication  of  administration 
and  possible  clash  of  authority.  That  branches  of  the  Pasteur  In- 
stitute for  the  administration  of  anti-rabic  virus  be  established  at 
Birmingham  and  Mobile  to  lessen  the  expense  and  facilitate  the 
treatment  of  patients.  That  the  anti-Tuberculosis  Commission  and 
the  trustees  of  the  Tuberculosis  Sanatorium  be  abolished  and  what- 
ever functions  may  have  been  intended  to  be  conferred  upon  them 
be  transferred  to  the  State  Board  of  Health,  and  the  statutes  relative 
thereto  be  repealed.  That  section  10  of  act  610  of  the  medical  laws 
be  amended  so  that  the  county  health  officer  cannot  act  in  a  dual 
capacity  as  such  officer  and  physician  in  charge  of  the  county  tuber- 
culosis hospital. 

2.  School  Health  Regulations. 

That  the  State  Health  Officer  and  State  Superintendent  of 
Education  jointly  formulate  and  issue  a  series  of  regulations  for  the 


Public  Health  61 

guidance  of  county  health  officers  and  school  teachers,  including 
the  following  points:  naming  the  several  communicable  diseases 
affecting  school  attendance;  defining  isolation  and  quarantine; 
giving  the  period  of  required  absence  of  children  suffering  from  such 
diseases;  governing  the  return  of  such  pupils  to  school;  requiring 
the  furnishing  of  a  physician's  certificate  before  returning  to  school. 
That  pupils  be  required,  before  being  admitted  to  school  after  an 
absence,  to  furnish  a  certificate  upon  a  form  prepared  jointly  by  the 
State  Health  Officer  and  the  State  Superintendent  of  Education, 
showing  the  number  of  days  absent  and  the  cause  and  if  due  to  ill- 
ness, stating  the  disease  or  ailment — the  mere  statement  "illness,' 
not  to  be  accepted.  That  a  law  be  passed  making  it  obligatory  for 
each  pupil  to  be  inoculated  against  typhoid  fever  before  he  is  ad- 
mitted to  a  secondary  or  state  school,  and  to  file  certificate  to  that 
effect  with  the  principal  of  the  school.  That  school  medical  in- 
spection of  teachers  and  pupils  be  made  compulsory  for  public, 
private  and  parochial  schools ;  that  such  inspections  be  made  by  the 
all-time  health  officers  except  in  such  counties  and  municipalities 
where  special  school  medical  inspection  in  the  public  schools  can  be 
afforded;  that  the  State  Health  Officer  and  State  Superintendent 
of  Education  jointly  formulate  and  issue  regulations  governing  such 
inspections. 

3.    A  Full  Time  Health  Unit  for  Every  County. 

That  sub-division  2  of  section  706  be  so  amended  as  to  make 
an  all-time  health  unit  obligatory  in  every  county  instead  of  making 
it  optional  as  at  present  with  the  county  commissioners  or  board 
of  revenue  to  provide  only  an  all-time  health  officer.  That  the  State 
Board  of  Health  be  required  to  review  the  proceedings  and  findings 
of  trial  of  county  health  officer  for  ratification,  amendment  or  re- 
jection, as  the  case  may  be,  as  final  action  which  shall  be  binding 
upon  the  county  medical  society,  and  that  whenever  a  county 
health  officer  is  removed  from  office  upon  the  recommendation  of  the 
State  Board  of  Health,  he  be  ineligible  for  further  employment  in  a 
similar  capacity  in  the  county  where  he  was  removed  from  office. 
That  act  390,  statutes  of  1915,  be  amended  by  striking  out  that  por- 
tion beginning  at  line  3  which  reads  "which  has  a  population  of  more 
than  75,000  and  less  than  82,000  people  according  to  the  last  or 
any  subsequent  census,"  thus  making  it  applicable  to  any  county 
in  the  state  regardless  of  population.     That  a  public  health  nurse 


62  Child  Welfare  in  Alabama 

be  included  in  each  health  unit  in  every  county ;  that  she  be  required 
to  pass  an  examination  prescribed  jointly  by  the  State  Health  Officer 
and  the  State  Superintendent  of  Education,  and  that  nurses  be 
elected  by  county  medical  societies  only  from  a  list  furnished  by 
the  State  Board  of  Health  in  a  manner  similar  to  that  recommended 
in  the  case  of  all-time  health  officers;  that  where  counties  cannot 
or  will  not  furnish  funds  for  such  nurse  the  county  boards  of  educa- 
tion be  authorized  to  employ  such  nurse  and  that  a  special  teacher's 
certificate  be  granted  her  in  order  to  comply  with  the  law  permitting 
the  payment  of  funds  only  to  those  holding  teacher's  certificates; 
and  that  the  law  relative  to  requirements  for  teacher's  certificates 
be  so  amended  as  to  give  special  certificates  to  persons  performing 
special  service  in  school  work,  or  that  the  State  Superintendent  of 
Education  be  empowered  to  accept  the  certificate  of  a  public  health 
nurse  from  the  state  board  of  medical  examiners  as  the  equivalent 
of  a  first-grade  teacher's  certificate  limited  to  the  special  field  and 
that  such  public  health  nurse  act  as  supervisor  of  the  teaching  and 
practice  of  hygiene  in  the  public  schools  of  the  county. 

4.  Vital  Statistics. 

That  steps  be  taken  by  the  next  legislature  to  place  Alabama 
in  the  federal  registration  of  vital  statistics  area  under  what  is  known 
as  the  model  law. 

5.  Examination  of  Midwives. 

That  midwives  in  Alabama  be  examined  and  certificates  issued 
to  them,  and  heavy  penalties  be  imposed  for  failure  to  report  any 
cases. 

6.  Abatement  of  Nuisances. 

That  the  regulations  for  the  abatement  of  nuisances,  section 
718,  be  so  amended  as  to  give  the  county  medical  society  power  to 
declare  a  nuisance  to  exist  and  to  abate  the  same,  with  the  right  of 
appeal  on  the  part  of  the  owner  to  the  State  Board  of  Health,  the 
decision  of  the  state  board  to  be  final  and  binding.  In  the  event  of 
the  owner  or  agent  failing  within  a  given  period  to  comply  with  the 
orders  of  the  State  Board  of  Health  that  the  state  board  be  em- 
powered to  have  said  nuisance  abated,  the  cost  to  be  taxed  upon 
the  property,  and  that  the  State  Board  of  Health  be  empowered  to 
sell  the  property  at  public  sale  to  satisfy  such  claim. 


EDUCATION 
James  J.  Doster* 

Dean  of  the  School  of  Education,  University  of  Alabama 

THE  PUBLIC   SCHOOL  SYSTEM 

A  study  of  the  educational  situation  in  Alabama  shows  that  the 
public  school  system  is  not  well  organized.  While  there  are  suffi- 
cient, perhaps  too  many,  schools  of  the  usual  types — elementary, 
secondary,  higher  and  special — they  are  not  well  articulated  and 
co-ordinated.  The  sphere  of  each  institution  or  each  type  has  not 
yet  been  clearly  defined  and  as  a  result  there  is  much  overlapping 
of  work  and  confusion  of  aims.  The  reason  for  this  anomalous  con- 
dition is  found  in  the  fact  that  the  public  schools  and  higher  insti- 
tutions have  developed  in  an  empirical  way.  As  rapidly  as  the  need 
for  an  educational  institution  of  a  certain  type  has  become  manifest 
the  legislature  has  established  the  institution  and  provided  for  its 
control  and  support  with  little  regard  to  its  relation  to  other  schools 
already  in  existence. 

As  matters  now  stand  Alabama  has  in  good  working  order 
practically  all  of  the  parts  of  a  good  school  system  but  these  parts 
must  be  welded  into  a  harmonious  whole  before  the  highest  results 
can  be  secured.  To  accomplish  this  a  State  Board  of  Education  or 
an  Educational  Commission  with  plenary  powers  will  probably  be 
necessary. 

COMPONENT   PARTS   OF  SCHOOL  SYSTEM 

University  of  Alabama. — The  University  of  Alabama,  the  "cap- 
stone of  the  public  school  system,"  was  established  in  1831  and  is 
located  at  Tuscaloosa.  It  was  the  first  part  of  the  system  to  be 
definitely  organized,  but  on  account  of  a  complete  lack  of  organic 
connection  with  the  common  schools  its  development  was  delayed 
for  many  years.  Only  recently  has  it  begun  to  approximate  its  true 
function  as  head  of  the  school  system. 

*This  paper  was  prepared  with  the  assistance  of  Messrs.  J.  B.  Hobdy  and 
J.  L.  Sibley,  state  rural  school  agents. 

63 


64  Child  Welfare  in  Alabama 

The  organizations  for  the  administration  of  the  University  are 
classified  as  the  college  of  arts  and  sciences,  the  college  of  engineer- 
ing, the  school  of  education,  the  school  of  law,  the  summer  school, 
and  the  school  of  medicine  which  is  located  at  Mobile.  The  enroll- 
ment in  1916-17  was  as  follows:  college  of  arts  and  sciences  606, 
college  of  engineering  110,  school  of  education  266,  school  of  law 
127,  summer  school  790,  and  school  of  medicine  43,  making  a  grand 
total,  less  duplicates,  of  1,728  students. 

For  the  maintenance  of  all  departments,  not  including  the 
school  of  medicine  at  Mobile,  the  University  receives  annually  from 
the  state  $30,000,  in  addition  to  the  constitutional  settlement  of  the 
old  state  debt  which  amounts  to  $36,000,  and  the  amount  of  $26,634 
which  it  receives  from  productive  funds.  This  is  probably  the 
smallest  appropriation  made  by  any  state  for  the  support  of  its  uni- 
versity. The  tremei^dous  possibilities  of  the  institution  for  rendering 
high  service  as  head' of  the  school  system  are  sadly  limited  by  want 
of  necessary  funds,  which  the  legislature  should  at  once  provide. 

Alabama  Polytechnic  Institute. — This  institution,  first  known 
as  the  Agricultural  and  Mechanical  College,  is  located  at  Auburn 
and  was  estabhshed  iji;  1872.  "The  leading  object  of  the  Institute, 
in  conformity  with  "me  Act  of  Congress  and  the  Acts  of  the  State 
Legislature,  is  to  teach  the  principles  and  applications  of  science." 

The  organization  embraces  a  college  of  engineering,  mines, 
and  architecture,  a  college  of  veterinary  medicine  and  surgery 
and  an  academic- college.  In  1916-17  the  enrollment  was  as  follows: 
academic  college  676,  engineering  and  mines  525,  agricultural 
sciences  497,  veterinary  medicine  and  surgery  178,  summer  session 
548,  giving  a  total,  less  duplicates,  of  1,478.  In  addition  there  were 
enrolled  in  two  weeks  summer  courses  in  agriculture  734  farmers, 
and  in  the  school  of  practical  agriculture  (boys'  com  clubs)  125  boys. 

For  maintenance  of  the  departments  named  above  the  Insti- 
tute in  1916-17  received,  exclusive  of  students'  fees  and  certain 
amounts  from  other  sources,  $53,510  from  the  state,  $21,440  from 
productive  funds,  and  $27,900  from  the  federal  government.  Like 
the  University  of  Alabama,  the  Institute  is  inadequately  supported 
and  needs  more  money  for  expansion. 

Alabama  Girls'  Technical  Institute. — This  school  was  authorized 
by  the  legislature  in  1893  and  is  located  at  Montevallo,  which  is 
usually  described  as  "the  geographical  center  of  the  state."     Its 


Education  65 

purpose  is  "to  give  instruction  in  the  liberal  arts  and  sciences  and 
in  the  industrial  subjects."  In  addition  to  the  usual  academic 
departments  the  organization  includes  departments  of  "art,  drawing, 
painting  and  designing;  vocal  music;  instrumental  music;  book- 
keeping, stenography,  t3-pewriting  and  telegraphy;  domestic  art, 
se\\dng,  millinery  and  di'essmaking;  domestic  economy,  cooking, 
and  chemistry  of  foods;  dairjdng;  physical  culture,  and  manual 
training."  Recently  plans  were  perfected  to  make  the  Institute  a 
college  of  standard  grade. 

In  1916-17  there  were  1,108  students  enrolled  in  all  depart- 
ments, including  the  training  school  which  is  under  the  direction 
of  the  college. 

Exclusive  of  students'  fees,  the  Institute  receives  annually  for 
its  support  836,000  from  the  state  and  $18,238  from  productive 
funds. 

Class  A  Normal  Schools. — These  schools  are  located  at  Florence, 
Troy,  Jacksonville  and  Livingston.  The  school  at  Florence,  the 
oldest,  was  established  in  1873.  Each  school  has  passed  through 
the  fiery  furnace  of  popular  criticism  and  each  has  had  its  own 
peculiar  trials.  All  have  literally  fought  their  way  to  recognition 
and  by  merit  alone  have  won  for  themselves  a  place  in  the  system. 

Their  purpose  as  recently  stated  by  their  common  board  of 
trustees  is  "to  prepare  teachers  for  the  elementary  and  rural  schools 
of  the  State."  Under  present  regulations  only  those  preparing  to 
teach  can  be  enrolled. 

The  number  of  students  in  1916-17  was  as  follows:  Florence 
647,  Troy  437,  Jacksonville  416,  Livingston  340,  making  a  grand 
total  of  1,840  students. 

Each  institution  receives  from  the  state  $20,000  per  year  for 
maintenance. 

Class  B  Normal  Schools. — Two  in  number,  these  schools  were 
created  by  the  legislature  only  a  few  years  ago.  One  is  located  at 
Daphne  and  the  other  at  Moundville.  Circumscribed  in  their 
activities  by  lack  of  funds  and  other  causes  they  have  not  yet  won 
the  recognition  accorded  the  class  A  schools.  At  present  their 
patronage  is  largely  local. 

In  1916-17  the  total  enrollment  including  the  training  school 
was  125  at  Daphne  and  174  at  Moundville. 

The  State  contributes  $5,000  annually  to  each  school. 


66  Child  Welfare  in  Alabama 

District  Agricultural  Schools. — There  are  nine  of  these  schools, 
one  being  located  in  each  congressional  district  except  the  tenth. 
The  first  was  established  by  the  legislature  at  Abbeville  in  1888 
in  response  to  a  feeling  that  the  farmer  boy  should  be  given  an 
opportunity  of  securing  a  practical  education  along  agricultural 
lines.  In  spite,  however,  of  the  good  intentions  of  the  founders,  these 
schools  remained  for  many  years  agricultural  only  in  name.  Even 
now  it  can  hardly  be  said  that  they  are  fulfilling  their  original  purpose. 

It  is  generally  conceded  that  the  agricultural  schools  have  been 
the  least  successful  of  the  state's  educational  ventures.  They  are 
now  being  converted  into  schools  for  teaching  vocational  agriculture 
under  the  terms  of  the  Smith-Hughes  Act. 

The  aggregate  enrollment  in  the  nine  schools  in  1916-17  was 
635  students  in  the  high  school  classes  and  224  students  in  the  pre- 
paratory classes. 

The  nine  institutions  receive  from  the  state  an  annual  appro- 
priation of  S40,500,which  is  divided  equally  among  them. 

County  High  Schools. — The  passage  of  the  county  high  school 
law  in  1907  made  possible  the  supplying  of  the  "missing  links"  in 
Alabama's  educational  system.  Under  the  terms  of  the  law  high 
schools  have  already  been  established  in  57  of  the  67  counties. 
In  each  county  the  community  in  which  the  school  is  located  generally 
furnishes  the  buildings,  grounds,  and  equipment  while  the  state 
contributes  a  fixed  sum  for  support.  Approximately  $1,000,000  has 
thus  far  been  expended  for  buildings  alone. 

The  course  of  study,  which  by  law  must  be  of  "secondary 
grade,"  covers  four  years,  and  is  fairly  flexible.  The  number  of  teach- 
ers employed  and  the  variety  of  courses  offered  depend  in  each 
school  upon  the  extent  to  which  the  county  and  local  authorities 
are  able  and  willing  to  supplement  the  state  appropriation  for 
support. 

Unfortunately  the  State  High  School  Commission  has  been 
forced  by  local  conditions  in  some  counties  to  allow  the  seventh 
grade  to  be  taught  in  the  county  high  school  building.  The  neces- 
sity for  this  action  is  to  be  deplored  as  it  tends  to  dislocate  the 
county  school  system  as  well  as  to  lower  the  standard  of  high  school 
work. 

In  his  annual  report  for  1917,  State  Superintendent  of  Educa- 
tion Feagin  says:    "In  order  to  guarantee  that  the  county  high 


Education  67 

schools  shall  do  their  best  work  they  need  to  be  supervised  and 
standardized.  This  is  necessary  not  only  to  guarantee  a  proper 
interpretation  and  adoption  of  the  course  of  study,  but  at  the  same 
time  to  keep  them  within  the  particular  sphere  of  work  for  which 
they  were  created.  There  are  still  a  number  of  these  schools  which 
place  numbers  above  admission  qualifications  and  admit  pupils 
who  should  be  retained  in  the  elementary  grades.  So  long  as  the 
high  schools  continue  such  a  practice  just  so  long  will  some  teachers 
of  elementary  grades  continue  to  send  poorly  prepared  pupils  to  the 
high  schools.  With  the  elementary  schools  faithfully  completing 
their  owti  field  of  work,  the  high  schools  limiting  themselves  defin- 
itely to  theirs,  the  colleges  holding  rigidly  to  theirs,  we  can  have  a 
satisfactory  system  and  in  no  other  way  can  we  have  it.  This  failure 
to  define  its  sphere  and  adhere  absolutely  to  it,  accounts  for  the  fact 
that  the  rather  low  standard  of  the  county  high  school  curriculum 
seems  to  be  a  necessity  at  this  time." 

Taken  as  a  whole  these  schools  are  rendering  fine  service  in  the 
cause  of  education  and  are  fulfilling  to  an  admirable  degree  the 
purpose  for  which  they  were  created. 

The  total  enrollment  in  the  57  schools,  exclusive  of  the  seventh 
grades,  was  6,485  during  the  1916-17  session.  Each  school  receives 
annually  from  the  state  S3,000. 

City  Schools. — Public  schools  in  cities,  and  in  towns  of  more 
than  2,000  inhabitants,  are  graded  and  the  course  of  study  is  gen- 
erally from  10  to  11  years  in  length.  In  a  majority  of  the  towns 
and  in  all  the  cities  a  separate  building,  usually  modem  in  construc- 
tion and  well  equipped,  has  been  erected,  and  is  used  wholly  for 
high  school  purposes. 

The  city  schools  derive  their  revenue  from  their  pro-rata  share 
of  the  general  state  appropriation  to  the  various  counties,  from  city 
appropriations,  from  local  taxation,  and  in  some  instances  from 
matriculation  and  tuition  fees. 

Each  city  school  system  is  a  distinct  entity  within  itself  and 
has  only  an  indirect  connection  with  the  county  and  state  systems. 

County  Schools. — The  county  school  system  embraces  the  rural 
schools  and  the  schools  in  towns  of  2,000  or  fewer  inhabitants.  The 
capstone  of  the  system  is  the  county  high  school,  which  theoretically 
at  least,  is  the  "finishing"  school  for  the  graduate  of  the  elementary 
and  rural  schools  of  the  county. 


68  Child  Welfare  in  Alabama 

Money  for  the  support  of  county  schools  is  derived  from  the 
state  appropriation,  from  local  taxation,  and  occasionally  from 
fees  and  supplements. 

Northeast  Alabama  Agricultural  and  Industrial  Institute. — The 
legislature  established  this  school  by  special  act  in  1911.  It  is 
located  at  Lineville,  Clay  County.  According  to  the  terms  of  the 
act,  instruction  must  be  given  in  "the  elements  of  agriculture,  in- 
cluding instruction  concerning  the  soil,  plant  life  and  the  animal 
life  of  the  farm.  The  course  of  study  shall  also  include  the  teaching 
of  manual  training,  domestic  economy  and  a  system  of  keeping 
farm  accounts  and  such  other  kindred  subjects  as  may  be  prescribed." 
The  institution  is  co-educational. 

In  1916-17  there  were  103  pupils  enrolled  in  the  high  school 
department  and  211  in  the  elementary  grades.  The  institution 
serves  as  the  public  school  for  the  town  of  Lineville  and  vicinity. 

The  state  appropriation  is  $3,000  annually. 

State  Normal  School  for  Negroes. — This  school  was  established 
as  the  Lincoln  Normal  University  at  Marion,  Alabama,  by  the 
legislature  in  1873.  It  was  moved  to  Montgomery  in  1889.  The 
late  W.  B.  Patterson,  a  white  man,  was  president  of  the  school  for 
40  years. 

The  school  receives  $16,000  from  the  state. 

Agricultural  and  Mechanical  College  for  Negroes. — The  legis- 
lature established  this  school  at  Normal,  near  Huntsville,  in  1875. 
It  receives  the  federal  land-grant  appropriation  for  agricultural 
and  mechanical  education  for  negroes.  This  appropriation  amounts 
to  $22,500  annually.    It  receives  also  $4,000  from  the  state. 

Tuskegee  Institute. — This  institution,  founded  by  Booker 
Washington  in  1881,  is  located  at  Tuskegee.  Its  purpose  is  to  give 
industrial  training  to  young  colored  people  as  well  as  to  train  teachers 
for  colored  schools.  It  is  supported  chiefly  by  private  benefaction, 
though  the  state  appropriates  $4,500  for  the  teacher  training  de- 
partment. The  institution  is  quasi-public  and  the  state  has  repre- 
sentatives on  the  board  of  trustees. 

Other  Schools. — As  a  part  of  the  general  public  school  system, 
but  having  only  an  indirect  connection  with  it,  should  be  included  the 
School  for  the  Deaf  and  Blind  at  Talladega,  the  Alabama  Industrial 
School  at  East  Lake,  the  Mercy  Home  and  Industrial  School  at 
Birmingham,  and  the  Alabama  Reform  School  for  Juvenile  Negro 


Education  69 

Law  Breakers  at  Mt.  Meigs.  In  addition  to  these  are  many  private 
and  denominational  schools,  all  of  which  are  required  by  law  to  sub- 
mit annual  reports  to  the  State  Superintendent  of  Education. 

ADMINISTRATION 

Boards  of  Trustees. — The  University  of  Alabama,  the  Alabama 
Polytechnic  Institute,  the  Alabama  Technical  Institute,  the  class 
A  and  class  B  normal  schools,  the  district  agricultural  schools,  the 
county  high  schools,  the  Northeast  Alabama  Agricultural  and  In- 
dustrial Institute,  the  A.  and  M.  College  for  Negroes,  the  Mont- 
gomery Normal  School  for  Negi'oes,  Tuskegee  Institute,  as  well 
as  the  School  for  the  Deaf  and  Blind,  the  Alabama  Industrial  School 
for  Boys,  the  Mercy  Home  and  Industrial  School  for  Girls,  and  the 
Alabama  Reform  School  for  Juvenile  Negro  Law  Breakers,  are  all 
administered  by  separate  boards  of  control  whose  only  connection 
with  each  other  is  through  the  ex-oficio  members — the  governor,  the 
State  Superintendent  of  Education,  and  occasionally  some  other 
state  official. 

This  atomistic  method  of  administration  has  little  to  commend 
it.  Each  of  the  many  governing  bodies  tends  to  think  only  of  the 
needs  of  the  particular  institution  or  institutions  under  its  care. 
As  a  result,  since  the  function  and  purpose  of  the  different  institu- 
tions have  never  been  clearly  defined,  there  is  much  needless  waste 
and  duplication  of  effort  throughout  the  entire  system. 

City  Boards  of  Education. — The  public  schools  in  cities  and  in 
towns  of  over  2,000  inhabitants  are  administered  through  city 
boards  of  education  whose  members  are  generally  appointed  by  the 
governing  bodies  of  the  municipalities.  The  city  board  of  education 
elects  a  superintendent,  usually  a  man  well  qualified  for  his  work, 
and  holds  him  responsible  for  the  management  and  direction  of  the 
city  schools.  He  selects  his  teachers,  organizes  the  course  of  study, 
chooses  the  supervisors,  and  devises  plans  to  meet  the  developing 
educational  needs  of  the  city. 

As  a  general  rule  the  city  school  systems  in  Alabama  are  well 
administered  and  compare  favorably  in  efficiency  with  those  in  other 
.states. 

County  Boards  of  Education. — Under  the  tcnns  of  the  county 
board  of  education  act  of  1915  the  county  schools,  except  in  towns 


70  Child  Welfare  in  Alabama 

of  more  than  2,000  inhabitants,  are  placed  under  the  direction  of 
the  county  board  of  education,  whose  members  are  elected  by  the 
direct  vote  of  the  people.  The  chief  benefits  derived  from  this  new 
method  of  administration  may  be  summarized  as  follows: 

1.  Effective  administration  of  the  schools  by  a  capable  board  of  five 

members  elected  at  large  by  the  county,  having  large  powers 
and  responsible  to  all  the  people  of  the  county. 

2.  Supervision  of  all  the  schools  of  a   county  by  a  professionally 

trained  county  superintendent  of  education  chosen  by  and 
responsible  to  the  county  board  of  education. 

3.  Consolidation  of  small  rural  schools  into  graded  central  schools, 

with  the  attendant  advantage  of  classified  work,  better  school 
houses  and  equipment,  better  teachers,  and  social  center  ac- 
tivities. 

4.  Transportation  of  pupils  where  necessary,  making  it  possible  for 

children  in  remote  places  to  attend  school  without  physical 
discomfort  and  danger. 

These  results  however  follow  only  when  the  county  board  of 
education  is  composed  of  broad-visioned,  liberal  minded  men  and 
women  who  have  the  educational  interests  of  the  county  at  heart. 
Fortunately  the  people  generally  are  beginning  to  realize  this  fact 
and  in  many  counties  already  the  personnel  of  the  county  board  is 
of  high  type. 

SUPERVISION 

State  Supervision. — The  general  supervision  of  the  public 
schools  has  been  entrusted  by  legislative  enactment  to  the  State 
Superintendent  of  Education.  This  official,  who  may  or  may  not 
be  a  teacher,  is  elected  by  popular  vote  for  a  term  of  four  years  and 
is  prevented  from  succeeding  himself  by  a  provision  in  the  State 
Constitution.  A  State  Board  of  Examiners  consisting  of  the  State 
Superintendent  of  Education  and  two  members  appointed  by  him 
and  a  teacher  training  force  consisting  of  a  director  and  four  white 
and  two  negro  assistants  are  attached  to  and  are  a  part  of  the  office 
of  the  State  Superintendent  of  Education.  He  is  allowed  by  law  an 
office  force  consisting  of  a  chief  clerk,  two  bookkeepers,  and  a  sten- 
ographer. With  this  small  force  he  is  expected  to  keep  in  smoothly 
running  condition  the  educational  machinery  of  the  state  which 
extends  into  67  counties  and  involves  the  expenditure  of  millions  of 
dollars.    In  addition  to  his  other  duties  he  is  required  by  law  to  visit 


Education  71 

as  often  as  possible  every  county  in  the  state,  to  make  educational 
addresses,  and  to  serve  as  an  ex-officio  member  of  many  school  and 
college  boards  of  trustees. 

Recognizing  the  pressing  need  of  additional  help  in  the  work 
of  supervision  and  in  waging  educational  campaigns  throughout 
the  state,  the  University  of  Alabama  and  the  Alabama  Polytechnic 
Institute  have  each  for  the  past  ten  years  contributed  to  the  State 
Department  of  Education  a  highly  trained  man  whose  sole  duty 
has  been  to  stimulate  and  encourage  the  growth  of  secondary  schools. 
With  funds  supplied  by  the  General  Education  Board  of  New  York 
two  rural  school  agents  have  also  been  employed  to  assist  in  the 
work  of  supervision  and  general  educational  propaganda.  The 
tremendous  educational  awakening  now  taking  place  in  Alabama 
is  largely  due  to  the  effective  service  rendered  by  these  men  under 
the  able  leadershop  of  former  State  Superintendent  William  F. 
Feagin  and  the  incumbent  Spright  Dowell. 

Should  these  outside  agencies  withdraw  their  help  public  school 
interests  would  undoubtedly  suffer  grievously.  In  view  of  the  fact 
that  this  aid  will  probably  be  withdrawn  at  some  time  in  the  future 
it  is  clearly  evident  that  steps  should  soon  be  taken  by  the  legis- 
lature to  provide  the  State  Superintendent  with  an  adequate  corps 
of  supervisors  at  public  expense. 

Since  the  State  Superintendent  of  Education  can  not  succeed 
himself  in  office  and  since  he  is  not  required  by  law  to  be  a  pro- 
fessionally trained  teacher,  or  even  a  teacher,  Alabama  can  never 
have  a  consistent  public  school  program  until  the  present  method 
of  choosing  the  superintendent  is  abolished.  Fitness  for  the  office 
rather  than  political  consideration  should  determine  the  choice 
of  a  man  for  the  position.  And  a  good  man  when  once  chosen  should 
remain  in  office,  not  for  four  years,  but  during  the  time  he  renders 
efficient  service. 

County  Supervision. — The  supervision  of  the  county  schools 
devolves  upon  the  county  superintendent.  Under  the  new  law  he 
is  elected  by  the  county  board  of  education  and  is  chosen  with 
particular  reference  to  his  fitness  for  the  position.  No  definite  limit 
is  placed  to  his  term  of  office  nor  to  the  amount  of  salary  he  may 
receive.  The  duties  of  his  position  are  clearly  set  forth  by  law  and 
none  but  a  professionally  trained  teacher  can  perform  them  satis- 
factorily. 


72  Child  Welfare  in  Alabama 

Under  present  conditions  there  is  nothing  to  prevent  the  county- 
board  of  education  from  electing  well  trained  superintendents  and 
then  providing  them  with  competent  assistants.  Already  a  number 
of  county  boards  are  appreciating  to  the  fullest  their  responsibili- 
ties and  are  electing  strong  men  to  supervise  the  schools  of  their 
counties.  Time  will  soon  prove  the  worth  of  the  new  method  of 
developing  and  supervising  county  schools.  To  revert  to  the  old 
plan  would  be  a  serious  backward  step. 


SOURCE   OF  REVENUE 

For  the  maintenance  of  the  public  school  system,  exclusive  of 
the  colleges,  secondary  schools  and  special  schools,  the  following 
sums  of  money  are  appropriated  for  each  scholastic  j^ear: 

1.  The  annual  interest  at  6  per  cent  on  all  sums  of  money  which  have 

heretofore  been  or  which  may  hereafter  be  received  by  the  state 
as  the  proceeds  of  sales  of  lands  granted  or  entrusted  by  the 
United  States  to  the  state,  or  to  the  several  townships  thereof, 
the  valueless  sixteenth  section  fimd,  and  the  school  indemnity 
fund  for  school  purposes. 

2.  The  annual  interest  at  4  per  cent  on  that  part  of  the  surplus 

revenue  of  the  United  States  deposited  with  the  state  under  the 
Act  of  Congress  approved  June  23,  1836. 

3.  All  annual  rents,  incomes  and  profits  or  interest  arising  from  the 

proceeds  of  sales  of  all  such  land  as  may  hereafter  be  given  by 
the  United  States,  or  by  this  state,  or  by  individuals,  for  the 
support  of  the  public  schools  of  the  state. 

4.  All  such  sums  as  may  accrue  to  the  state  as  escheats,  the  same 

to  be  applied  to  the  support  of  the  public  schools  during  the 
scholastic  year  next  ensuing  the  receipt  in  the  state  treasurjr. 

5.  The  net  amount  of  poll  tax  that  may  be  collected  in  the  state; 

poll  tax  collected  in  every  county  to  be  retained  therein  for  the 
support  of  the  public  schools  thereof. 

6.  Licenses  which  are  by  law  required  to  be  paid    into   the   school 

fund  of  any  county  to  be  promptly  paid  by  the  judge  of  pro- 
bate or  other  person  collecting  the  same  to  the  county  super- 
intendent of  education,  and  to  be  expended  for  the  benefit  of 
the  public  schools  of  each  county. 

7.  A   further   sum   of  $350,000   annually   for   every   scholastic   year, 

provided  however,  that  there  is  hereby  appropriated  the  ad- 
ditional sum  of  $100,000  annually,  if  in  the  judgment  of  the 
governor  of  Alabama  the  financial  condition  of  the  state  treasury 
will  permit  of  such  additional  appropriation. 


Education  73 

The  total  sum  from  the  above  sources,  except  ihe  poll  tax, 
for  the  year  1916-17,  amounted  to  $2,232,865.87.  The  approxi- 
mate amount  of  poll  tax  collected  and  expended  was  $150,000. 

The  general  education  fund  is  alloted  to  the  several  counties 
on  a  per  capita  basis,  the  per  capita  amount  last  year  being  $2.86. 
This  constitutes  a  public  school  fund,  and  is  the  only  fund  available 
unless  county  or  district  taxes  are  voted,  or  fees,  supplements  and 
tuition  are  collected. 

Boards  of  aldermen  and  town  councils  make  appropriations 
from  the  general  town  or  city  funds  to  supplement  the  state  funds. 
In  addition,  fees  are  often  charged  and  in  manj^  instances  supple- 
ments are  raised.  The  state  constitution  of  1901  authorized  any 
county  to  levy  a  one-mill  tax  for  public  education.  Many  counties 
availed  themselves  of  this.  The  only  other  means  of  procuring 
school  funds  in  rural  districts  prior  to  the  adoption  of  the  local  tax 
amendment  of  the  state  constitution  was  subscriptions,  supple- 
ments, or  fees.  These  objectionable  methods  are  now  being  elimi- 
nated through  the  levying  of  county  and  district  taxes. 

Although  the  local  tax  levy  was  being  collected  and  expended 
in  27  counties  during  the  1916-17  session,  fees  and  supplements 
amounting  to  $320,902  were  collected  and  expended  on  schools  out- 
side of  incorporated  cities  and  towns.  The  amount  of  funds  appro- 
priated from  city  and  town  treasuries  and  collected  in  fees  and  sup- 
plements from  pupils  was  $694,709. 

Since  the  ratification  of  the  educational  amendment,  Novem- 
ber 7,  1916,  more  than  50  counties  have  voted  a  three-mill  school 
tax,  resulting  in  the  addition  of  approximately  $1,500,000  to  the 
public  school  fund.  As  counties  vote  school  tax  levies  the  collection 
of  fees  and  supplements  will  become  unnecessary,  and  the  county 
school  systems  will  be  placed  upon  a  permanent  basis. 

The  trend  of  events  in  the  past  few  years  shows  that  the  people 
of  Alabama  are  rapidly  realizing  that  county  and  district  taxation 
constitutes  the  main  source  of  support  for  their  local  schools. 

LENGTH   OF   SCHOOL  TERMS 

School  terms  in  the  several  counties  of  the  state  and  in  many 
districts  of  the  same  county  vary  in  length.  The  variation  is  chiefly 
due  to  the  amount  of  local  funds  raised  by  county  and  district  taxa- 


74  Child  Welfare  in  Alabama 

tion  and  is  influenced  in  no  small  degree  by  the  white  population 
of  the  counties.  The  counties  levying  and  collecting  a  county  school 
tax  are  able  to  maintain  longer  terms  than  those  without  the  revenue 
derived  from  such  a  tax.  The  districts  in  a  county  levying  and  col- 
lecting a  county  tax  are  enabled  still  further  to  lengthen  their  terms 
by  a  district  tax. 

In  1916-17  the  length  of  terms  in  days  for  rural  schools  in  sev- 
eral typical  counties  was  as  follows:  Colbert  98,  Franklin  75,  Geneva 
92,  Etowah  90,  Walker  97.  During  1917-18  a  local  tax  of  three  mills 
was  collected  and  as  a  result  the  length  of  terms  for  rural  schools  in 
these  counties  for  the  present  year  is:  Colbert  140,  Franklin  120, 
Geneva  120,  Etowah  140,  Walker  140,  an  increase  in  these  counties 
ranging  from  28  days  to  45  days  over  the  preceding  year  when  no 
local  tax  funds  were  available. 

The  Black  Belt  counties  of  south  central  Alabama  maintain 
the  longest  terms  of  free  schools,  while  the  mountain  counties  of 
north  Alabama  and  the  counties  of  east  and  south  Alabama  have 
the  shortest  terms.  Proof  of  this  statement  is  borne  out  by  an  in- 
vestigation of  the  length  of  terms  in  four  typical  counties  of  the 
Black  Belt  as  compared  with  four  typical  counties  where  the  white 
population  predominates.  During  1916-17  when  no  school  tax 
was  levied  the  length  of  terms  in  days  in  the  typical  Black  Belt 
counties  was:  Perry  136;  Montgomery  158;  Bullock  152;  Lowndes 
140.  At  the  same  time  and  under  the  same  conditions  the  length 
of  terms  in  days  in  the  typical  "white"  counties  was:  Colbert  98, 
Franklin  75;    Geneva  75;    Randolph  80. 

The  length  of  school  terms  for  the  cities  and  incorporated  towns 
of  the  state  is  from  160  to  180  days.  The  average  for  such  schools, 
taking  the  state  as  a  whole,  is  176  days.  The  length  of  the  rural 
school  terms  ranges  from  80  to  180  days,  the  average  being  138. 

The  rapid  awakening  of  the  people  to  the  importance  of  educa- 
tion and  the  power  recently  given  to  them  to  raise  money  for  school 
purposes  by  county  and  district  taxation  are  tending  to  make  the 
school  terms  of  uniform  length  in  all  sections  of  the  state. 

SCHOOL  GROUNDS 

In  Towns  and  Cities. — School  grounds  including  building  sites 
range  in  area  from  space  just  large  enough  for  a  building  site  to  as 


Education  75 

much  as  four  acres  in  some  incorporations.  Grounds  limited  to  build- 
ing sites  are  found  in  a  few  instances  in  each  of  our  cities  of  the  first 
class. 

The  tendency  at  the  present  time  in  all  cities  and  towns  is  to 
locate  buildings  on  larger  tracts  of  land,  although  the  doing  of  this 
occasionally  necessitates  the  choice  of  a  site  away  from  the  center  of 
school  population. 

In  Rural  Districts. — The  area  of  ground  for  building  sites  in 
districts  other  than  those  inclosed  in  incorporated  territory  is  from 
one  to  five  acres.  There  are  a  number  of  instances  in  several  counties 
where  five  or  more  acres  have  been  deeded  to  the  state  for  school 
purposes. 

There  is  now  a  decided  tendency  on  the  part  of  county  boards 
of  education  to  accept  only  tracts  which  are  as  a  whole  suitable  for 
school  purposes. 

The  rural  school  house  law  enacted  in  1915,  authorizing  state 
aid  to  school  districts  for  the  construction,  repair,  and  equipment 
of  modem  buildings,  provides  that  aid  shall  not  be  approved  for  any 
district  unless  the  building  is  located  or  is  to  be  located  on  at  least 
two  acres  of  ground.  The  law  further  provides  that  buildings  of 
more  than  two  class  rooms  shall  receive  aid  only  on  condition  that 
title  in  fee  simple  forever  to  at  least  five  acres  of  land  is  made  to  the 
state. 

The  average  area  of  the  school  grounds  of  the  state  is  now  1.5 
acres. 

The  present  day  movement  to  relate  school  work  to  practical 
life  in  an  intimate  way  makes  the  need  for  larger  tracts  of  land  im- 
perative. The  time  will  soon  come  when  not  five  acres,  but  ten, 
fifteen  or  twenty  acres  will  be  necessary  to  satisfy  the  requirements 
of  the  more  progressive  schools. 

BUILDINGS,  EQUIPMENT,  AND   SANITATION 

In  Cities  and  Towns. — School  buildings  in  the  cities  and  in 
most  of  the  larger  towns  of  Alabama  are  creditable  structures, 
modern  in  construction,  and  well  equipped.  Practically  all  of  them 
were  planned  by  competent  architects  and  show  that  they  were 
constructed  with  a  view  to  proper  heating,  ventilation  and  lighting. 
Tliere  are  of  course  a  few  new  buildings  in  incorporated  towns 


76  Child  Welfare  in  Alabama 

constructed  according  to  "everybody's  plan,"  but  these,  however, 
have  proven  to  be  such  splendid  examples  of  misconstruction  that 
they  are  serving  the  good  purpose  of  creating  sentiment  for  better 
types. 

In  Rural  Districts. — Until  the  recent  past  every  kind  of  build- 
ing has  served  as  an  Alabama  schoolhouse,  though  some  counties 
have  been  more  careful  than  others  of  the  physical  and  heating 
conditions  of  their  schools.  Old  cabins,  tenant  houses,  antiquated 
residences,  abandoned  store  houses,  churches,  and  school  houses  of 
the  old  type  can  be  found  in  practically  every  Alabama  county. 
In  some  counties  it  is  true  that  many  of  these  substitutes  are  rapidly 
giving  place  to  modern  structures,  yet  so  many  buildings  of  the  old 
type  remain  that  their  presence  constitutes  a  serious  health  menace. 

Many  of  the  buildings  now  in  use  are  crowded,  poorly  lighted, 
and  inadequately  ventilated.  The  improper  arrangement  of  windows 
in  some  school  buildings  often  subject  the  eyes  of  the  children  to  a 
strong  glare,  and  the  lack  of  a  sufficient  number  of  windows  in 
others  reduces  the  amount  of  light  to  an  unsafe  minimum.  The 
crowded  condition  of  the  rooms  without  proper  inlets  and  outlets 
for  air  necessitates  the  continued  breathing  of  vitiated  air,  which 
makes  the  children  sluggish  and  renders  them  more  susceptible  to 
colds,  measles,  whooping-cough,  and  other  epidemics. 

In  a  majority  of  schools  in  two-thirds  of  the  counties  the  sani- 
tary situation  is  very  unsatisfactory.  The  interiors  of  the  buildings 
are  not  kept  clean,  this  condition  probably  being  due  to  the  fact 
that  the  cleaning  and  sweeping  of  the  building  is  delegated  to  the 
children  who,  often  under  the  direction  of  a  careless  and  indifferent 
teacher,  fail  to  perform  their  duties  regularly  and  in  proper  order. 

The  outdoor  sanitary  conveniences  in  fully  one-eighth  of  the 
schools  in  at  least  forty  counties  are  not  provided  for  either  sex. 
In  answering  the  calls  of  nature  the  children  and  teachers  are  com- 
pelled to  frequent  nearby  wooded  lands  and  fields,  shielded  by  trees 
and  underbrush.  At  least  one-fourth  of  the  schools  are  provided 
with  only  one  closet,  of  the  open,  soil-polluting  tj^pe.  The  remain- 
ing schools  are  provided  with  two  closets  usually  of  the  open  type. 

The  school  and  health  authorities  of  the  counties  of  Mobile, 
Jefferson,  Walker,  and  one  or  two  others  are  taking  definite  steps 
to  install  in  all  schools  closets  of  a  sanitary  or  semi-sanitary  type. 
Fully  a  half-dozen  county  boards  of  education  in  as  many  counties 


Education  77 

have  taken  official  action  on  the  health  conditions  in  and  around 
the  schools  under  their  direction,  requiring  that  all  schools  receiving 
public  funds  shall  be  provided  with  two  closets  before  appropria- 
tions from  the  public  funds  are  available.  Etowah  is  one  of  the 
counties  in  which  the  school  board  has  officially  taken  such  action. 

The  rural  school  water  supply  is  principally  the  open  well  of  a 
nearby  farm,  often  located  in  or  near  the  horse  lots;  a  spring  some- 
where in  the  vicinity  of  the  school ;  or  an  open  and  usually  neglected 
well  on  the  school  grounds.  An  adequate  and  healthful  supply  of 
water  is  a  rural  school  need  that  deserves  the  immediate  attention 
of  those  in  authority. 

In  1915  the  legislature  amended  the  law  granting  aid  to  rural 
school  districts  by  increasing  the  amount  available  to  the  maximum 
of  $1,000  for  any  school  and  by  requiring  a  district  to  expend  $2.00 
for  every  $1.00  received  from  the  state  fund.  Some  of  the  com- 
mendable features  of  the  new  law  are: 

1.  Plans  for  new  buildings  and  for  the  improvement  of  all  old  build- 

ings are  furnished  by  the  State  Department  of  Education  and 
are  drawn  by  a  competent  school  architect. 

2.  All  equipment  purchased  must  have  the  approval  of  the  State 

Department  of  Education. 

3.  Buildings  must  be  provided  with  necessary  cloak  and  work  rooms. 

4.  State  aid  will  not  be  furnished  imless  a  one  or  two-room  school 

building  is  located  on  at  least  two  acres  of  land  and  a  building 
of  more  than  two  rooms  on  five  or  more  acres.  The  title  to  the 
land  must  in  every  case  be  vested  in  the  state. 

5.  State  funds  are  not  released  until  the  building  has  been  completed 

or  repairs  have  been  made  or  equipment  installed.  The  inspec- 
tor of  the  work  is  designated  by  the  State  Department  of  Edu- 
cation. 

The  state  aid  fund  available  for  each  county  in  1917-18  was 
$6,021.61.  The  following  are  some  of  the  results  obtained  from  the 
administration  of  the  law  during  the  past  two  and  one-half  years: 

Buildings  constructed  with  one  and  two  rooms 117 

Buildings  constructed  with  three  or  more  rooms 74 

Buildings  repaired 271 

Buildings  equipped 210 

Eleven  per  cent  of  the  rural  school  buildings  have  been  aided 
by  the  fund.  The  average  cost  of  the  buildings  thus  far  constructed 
is  $1,761.25. 


78  Child  Welfare  in  Alabama 

Only  about  half  of  the  counties  are  in  any  material  degree  avail- 
ing themselves  of  state  aid.  This  is  due  in  most  instances  to  the 
fact  that  school  officials  are  not  acquainting  the  people  of  the  rural 
districts  with  the  provisions  of  the  law.  As  all  the  counties  begin 
to  take  advantage  of  the  assistance  offered,  a  still  greater  impetus 
will  be  given  to  the  construction  of  modem  school  buildings. 

This  is  a  good  law,  yet  it  contains  possibilities  for  harm  if  un- 
wisely administered.  Too  great  stress  laid  upon  the  construction 
of  good  one  and  two-room  school  buildings  will  undoubtedly  retard 
the  movement  for  consolidation.  State  aid  as  far  as  possible  for 
the  present  should  be  given  only  to  schools  of  the  consolidated  type. 

CONSOLIDATION   OF  SCHOOLS 

The  modern  public  school  is  a  complex  organization.  Its  func- 
tion is  to  prepare  the  child  for  complete  living  by  training  him  along 
many  lines  not  contemplated  in  the  old  system  of  education.  The 
traditional  three  R's  no  longer  constitute  the  sole  content  of  the 
curriculum.  Subjects  of  a  practical  nature  have  been  added  and 
old  subjects  worked  over  until  the  course  of  study  to-day  is  a  far 
different  thing  from  what  it  was  a  few  years  ago.  Manual  training, 
domestic  art,  domestic  science,  practical  agriculture,  horticulture, 
animal  husbandry,  as  well  as  many  of  the  trades  and  industries, 
now  rank  in  importance  with  the  older  literary  subjects  and  are 
required  by  a  growing  public  demand  to  be  taught  even  in  the 
rural  schools. 

In  the  days  of  the  three  R's  the  one-room  building  was  sufficient 
for  all  needs,  but  the  broadening  and  enriching  of  the  aims  of  educa- 
tion have  rendered  it  inadequate  to  meet  public  needs.  It  belongs 
to  the  past  and  must  be  discarded  along  with  the  hand  sickle  and 
"scooter"  plow  of  yesteryears. 

A  new  type  of  building,  of  many  rooms,  well  planned,  adequately 
equipped,  and  surrounded  by  ample  grounds  for  outdoor  instruc- 
tional and  play  purposes  must  take  the  place  of  the  one-room  struc- 
tures. Only  when  this  is  done  will  the  rural  school  be.  prepared  to 
fulfill  its  true  function. 

That  the  one-room  building  is  yet  predominant  in  Alabama 
is  shown  by  the  following  table  which  gives  the  number  of  the  dif- 
ferent types  of  buildings  in  typical  counties: 


Education  79 

Number  of  Rural  School  Buildings 

1  2  3  4  5  or 

County  room         rooms        rooms        rooms        more  rooms       Total 

Bullock 13  S  2  1  9  33 

Chambers 22  19  6  2  7  54 

Colbert 33  15  1  0  0  49 

Etowah 61  10  6  1  1  79 

Franklin 50  15  5  0  0  70 

Geneva 17  38  5  0  0  60 

Limestone 35  20  12  1  1  69 

Madison 36  12  5  4  4  61 

Mobile 25  1  11  11  5  53 

Montgomery 26  9  2  3  1  41 

Pike 48  10  4  0  0  62 

Randolph 23  30  17  3  0  72 

Walker 49  30  8  4  10  101 

436  227  74  30  38  805 

Percentage 54.1  28.2  9.1  3.7  4.7 

Prior  to  October  1,  1915,  practically  nothing  had  been  done  in 
Alabama  toward  the  consolidation  of  schools  and  the  transportation 
of  pupils  except  in  Mobile  County  and  in  Sumter  County  at  Cuba 
and  Geiger.  Until  the  enactment  of  the  new  county  board  law  by 
the  legislature  in  that  year  there  was  no  legal  authority  for  the 
consolidation  of  schools  and  the  transportation  of  pupils  at  public 
expense. 

Since  the  passage  of  this  law,  162  consolidations  of  various  types 
have  been  effected.  This  result  was  secured  by  abandoning  421 
one  and  two-room  schools;  eighty-nine  were  effected  by  bringing 
together  two  schools;  forty-seven  by  bringing  together  3  schools; 
twenty-three  by  bringing  together  4  schools;  and  two  by  bringing 
together  five  or  more  schools.  During  1916-17  there  were  2,311 
children  transported  at  public  expense.  This  transportation  was 
done  by  wagons  of  various  kinds.  The  ordinary  two-horse  farm 
wagon  with  improvised  body  was  the  most  common  vehicle  used, 
though  auto  busses,  hacks,  and  manufactured  transportation  wagons 
were   quite   generally   employed. 

A  majority  of  these  consolidated  schools  occupy  new  state-aid 
buildings  located  on  from  two  to  five  acres  of  ground.  The  most 
typical  consolidation  thus  far  effected  is  the  one  in  Chambers  County, 


80  Child  Welfare  in  Alabama 

where  4  schools  employing  5  teachers  were  brought  together  at 
Five  Points,  a  small  rural  community.  The  school  is  now  housed 
in  a  splendid  $12,000  building,  well  equipped,  and  located  on  a  12- 
acre  plot  of  ground.  At  present  there  are  12  teachers  employed. 
In  addition  to  7  years  of  elementary  work,  it  is  giving  a  well  graded 
four-year  high  school  course  for  9  months  each  year.  There  are 
four  transportation  wagons  carrying  89  pupils  daily  to  the  school. 

In  the  location  and  planning  of  consolidated  schools  there  is 
need  for  a  high  order  of  constructive  thinking.  The  fact  should  be 
kept  constantly  in  mind  that  a  new  type  of  school  is  being  created 
to  meet  a  new  need,  to  serve  a  new  purpose.  Good  results  will  not 
necessarily  follow  from  bringing  together  three  or  four  schools  and 
having  them  occupy  the  same  building.  It  is  possible  that  such  a 
"union  school"  will  continue  the  old  work  in  the  old  way.  To  make 
the  consolidated  school  effective  a  new  vision  must  be  caught  of  the 
unlimited  possibilities  of  such  a  school  for  transfomiing  rural  life. 

RURAL  HIGH   SCHOOL  FACILITIES 

High  school  faciHties  are  decidedly  limited  in  the  rural  schools 
of  the  counties  which  do  not  levy  and  collect  a  three-mill  county 
school  tax.  In  40  counties  levying  and  collecting  the  tax,  many 
schools  offering  at  least  two  years  of  high  school  work  have  been 
established.  High  school  courses  covering  three  and  four  years  are 
being  offered  in  a  number  of  the  large  consolidated  schools  such  as 
the  Alliance  School  in  Jefferson  County  and  the  Five  Points  School 
in  Chambers  County. 

Since  the  county  boards  rightly  discourage  high  school  work 
in  one-teacher  schools  and  since  above  60  per  cent  of  the  schools 
in  Alabama  belong  to  the  one-teacher  class  only  a  comparatively 
few  rural  schools  offer  training  above  the  seventh  grade. 

The  elementary  enrollment  in  rural  school  districts  during  1916- 
17  was  280,688.  The  high  school  enrollment  in  the  same  schools 
during  the  same  year  was  12,701  or  5  and  one-half  per  cent  of  the 
entire  enrollment.  In  the  city  and  town  elementary  schools  during 
that  year  the  enrollment  was  46,861,  while  the  high  school  enroll- 
ment was  7,977  or  15  per  cent  of  the  entire  enrollment.  It  is  evident 
from  these  figures  that  the  nn-al  child  is  not  receiving  the  same  high 
school  advantages  as  the  child  who  lives  in  the  city  or  town. 


Education  81 

To  provide  adequate  high  school  facilities  for  every  rural  child 
no  additional  legislation  is  required.  The  wise  consolidation  of  the 
many  one-teacher  schools  is  the  solution  of  the  problem,  and  the 
authority  to  effect  this  consolidation  and  provide  for  the  transpor- 
tation of  elementary  and  high  school  pupils  at  public  expense  is  al- 
ready vested  in  the  county  boards  of  education.  What  is  needed 
now  above  all  else  is  a  widespread  awakening  of  the  people  to  the 
importance  of  high  school  training  for  the  rural  as  well  as  the  city 
child.    The  means  for  providing  this  training  are  already  at  hand. 

PLAY   GROUNDS   AND   PLAY  EQUIPMENT 

In  Cities  and  Towns. — The  grounds  devoted  to  play  in  the  cities 
and  incorporated  towns  are  with  few  exceptions  wholly  inadequate. 
This  is  especially  true  in  most  of  the  schools  of  the  larger  cities.  It 
is  only  recently  that  the  attention  of  school  authorities  has  been 
directed  to  this  important  matter. 

A  number  of  schools  in  the  cities  of  the  first  class  are  located 
convenient  to  city  play  grounds  and  parks  but  such  substitutes  for 
school  grounds  have  not  proven  altogether  satisfactory. 

One  acre  of  ground  is  a  liberal  estimate  of  the  average  area 
of  play  grounds  in  the  city  and  town  schools  of  the  state. 

Play  equipment  in  urban  schools  is  as  a  general  rule  as  meager 
as  the  play  ground  is  restricted.  Most  of  these  schools  are  provided 
with  basket-ball  courts  and  baseball  diamonds  and  equipment  for 
playing  these  games.  There  are,  however,  very  few  instances  on 
record  where  the  equipment  was  purchased  with  any  funds  secured 
either  directly  or  indirectly  from  the  school.  The  purchase  money 
was  obtained  by  subscription  from  the  citizens  of  the  town  interested 
in  the  school  children,  and  through  assessments  made  by  the  children 
on  themselves. 

A  few  schools  in  Binningham  and  Mobile  have  been  supplied 
with  the  minimum  outdoor  play  equipment  for  use  of  the  smaller 
children.  This  is  true  on  a  small  scale  in  a  few  of  the  cities  of  the 
second  class,  as  Gadsden,  etc. 

In  Rural  Schools. — Until  recently  no  thought  has  been  given 
to  play  grounds  for  rural  schools.  As  a  consequence  the  areas  are 
very  limited  and  in  many  cases  unsuited  for  the  purpose.  One-half 
an  acre  is  the  average  space  suitable  for  play  purposes  in  rural  schools. 


82  Child  Welfare  in  Alabama 

The  surface  of  the  land  is  so  often  broken  or  otherwise  unsuited  that 
systematic  games  can  not  be  played. 

The  importance  of  play  in  the  lives  of  children  is  now  being 
recognized  by  patrons,  and  in  general,  play  activities  of  country  chil- 
dren are  receiving  more  consideration  as  the  importance  of  larger  and 
better  selected  areas  for  school  sites  is  impressed  upon  the  citizens  of 
the  rural  districts  under  the  provisions  of  the  rural  schoolhouse  law. 

Equipment  for  play  in  rural  schools  is  so  meager  and  so  in- 
frequently found  that  it  is  really  negligible.  Such  games  as  basket- 
ball and  baseball  are  played  in  the  larger  types  of  rural  schools  and 
the  small  amount  of  equipment  usually  provided  is  furnished  by  the 
pupils  themselves. 

There  is  no  single  instance  on  record  in  any  county  in  Alabama 
where  the  scho5l  authorities  have  provided  play  equipment  or  em- 
ployed supervisors  of  play  to  encourage  healthful  games  and  sports 
in  the  county  system.  A  niunber  of  county  boards  of  education  do 
encourage  school  fairs  at  which  athletic  contests  are  entered  into  by 
the  pupils  of  the  rural  and  small  town  schools.  Among  the  counties 
holding  successful  fairs  each  year  are  Calhoun,  Lee,  Covington, 
Mobile,  Etowah,  Washington,  Chambers  and  Franklin. 

There  is  however,  a  class  of  schools  in  which  attention  is  being 
given  to  organized  supervised  play.  These  schools  are  supported  in 
whole  or  in  part  by  large  corporations.  The  most  notable  are  those 
of  the  Tennessee  Coal  and  Iron  Company  in  the  Birmingham  dis- 
trict, and  of  the  West  Point  Manufacturing  Company  on  the  Chat- 
tahoochie  River  in  Chambers  County.  Most  of  the  schools  patron- 
ized by  the  employees  of  these  companies  have  adequate  play  equip- 
ment and  grounds  sufficiently  large  for  outdoor  games.  The  Tennes- 
see Company  employs  supervisors  to  direct  play  activities. 

SCHOOL  BUILDINGS   AS   SOCIAL  CENTERS 

During  the  past  few  years  rural  schools  in  districts  where  a  gen- 
eral educational  awakening  has  taken  place  have  rapidly  become 
the  center  of  community  activity.  This  is  especially  true  where  new 
state-aid  buildings  have  been  constructed.  The  fact  that  a  com- 
munity is  sufficiently  interested  in  the  welfare  of  its  children  to  raise 
the  necessary  funds  for  the  construction  of  a  modem  school  building 
is  evidence  of  an  awakened  interest  in  educational  affairs. 


Education  83 

It  would  be  unfair  to  say  that  there  are  any  counties  in  the  State 
where  an  awakening  is  not  manifest.  Such  an  awakening  is  the 
resultant  of  the  forces  which  have  been  active  in  Alabama  in  inform- 
ing the  people  of  the  general  conditions  of  the  various  counties  as 
compared  with  each  other  and  of  the  state  as  compared  with  other 
states. 

The  local  tax  amendment  campaign  waged  during  the  fall  of 
1916,  preceded  by  the  illiteracy  campaign  and  a  general  campaign 
of  education  looking  to  the  recasting  of  the  school  laws  did  much  to 
bring  about  the  results  which  are  apparent  on  all  sides  at  this  time. 
Of  the  fifteen  counties  visited  in  the  preparation  of  this  report  only 
two  were  reported  as  showing  little  or  no  community  interest  as 
evidenced  by  public  gatherings  in  the  district  schoolhouse.  Red 
Cross  and  Liberty  Bond  drives  have  supplemented  the  work  of  the 
educational  forces  in  their  various  campaigns  by  bringing  the  people 
together  in  the  local  school  buildings  for  public  exercises  and  social 
gatherings.  There  is  now  a  decided  tendency  to  make  the  com- 
munity school  the  center  of  all  local  activities.  This  is  true  in  the 
small  town  schools  as  well  as  in  the  rural  schools.  Numerous  examples 
worthy  of  note  could  be  given  in  many  counties  of  the  state. 

All  of  this  augurs  well  for  the  future.  It  shows  that  the  schools 
themselves  are  ministering  more  and  more  to  the  needs  of  rural  and 
urban  life  and  that  the  people  are  recognizing  this  fact  by  using  the 
school  buildings  and  grounds  as  a  center  of  their  community  activi- 
ties. Better  school  buildings,  with  better  equipment,  better  paid 
and  more  highly  trained  teachers,  an  enriched  course  of  study,  and 
longer  terms  are  the  direct  results  on  the  educational  side  from  this 
growing  movement. 

COMPULSORY  ATTENDANCE 

The  compulsory  attendance  law  passed  by  the  legislature  in 
1915  requires  every  child  between  the  ages  of  8  and  15  years  in- 
clusive to  attend  school  for  a  period  of  80  days  unless  he  has  completed 
the  work  of  the  seven  elementary  grades.  The  county  boards  of 
education  however  are  given  the  right  to  reduce  the  period  of  com- 
pulsory attendance  to  60  days  if  in  their  opinion  conditions  warrant 
it.  The  enforcement  of  the  law  is  placed  in  the  hands  of  the  county 
boards  who  arc  empowered  to  employ  compulsory  attendance  offi- 
cers.   The  salary  of  these  officers  is  fixed  by  the  county  boards  of 


84  Child  Welfare  in  Alabama 

education  and  is  paid  by  the  county  boards  of  revenue.  Provisions 
are  made  for  exemption  for  sufficient  cause  and  no  child  is  required 
to  attend  school  who  lives  more  than  two  and  one-half  miles  from  a 
school  house  unless  transportation  is  provided. 

The  passage  of  the  compulsory  attendance  law  has  influenced 
greatly  public  sentiment  in  favor  of  education  and  as  a  result  in 
practically  every  county  there  has  been  an  increase  in  attendance 
ranging  from  5  to  15  per  cent.  In  about  one-half  the  counties 
the  law  is  being  enforced,  in  about  one-fourth  it  is  being  nominally 
enforced,  and  in  the  remaining  one-fourth  it  is  not  being  enforced  at 
all,  the  local  officials  giving  the  reasons  that  the  schoolhouses  are 
already  over-crowded.  Only  two  cases  of  prosecution  and  conviction 
have  thus  far  been  reported.  In  the  rural  districts  as  a  nile  the  law 
is  meeting  with  popular  approval.  In  cotton  mill  towns  both  school 
officers  and  mill  superintendents  report  that  the  law  is  being  rigidly 
observed. 

At  present  the  chief  difficulty  in  enforcing  the  compulsory  at- 
tendance law  is  due  to  the  small  salaries  that  have  been  allowed  at- 
tendance officers  and  active  men  have  not  always  been  employed. 
In  some  cases  the  county  boards  of  revenue  have  refused  to  pay  any 
of  the  expenses  whatever.  In  many  respects  the  past  year  has  been 
a  very  unfavorable  one  for  trying  out  the  provisions  of  the  law.  The 
winter  was  unusually  severe  and  an  epidemic  of  practically  every 
illness  to  which  children  are  subject  has  occurred  in  every  county. 
On  this  account  the  average  attendance  may  be  lower  than  the 
preceding  year  even  though  the  increase  in  enrollment  has  been 
marked. 

The  law  is  weak  in  certain  places  and  needs  to  be  strengthened 
by  legislative  action  as  early  as  possible.  Then  too  there  are  certain 
points  of  conflict  between  it  and  the  child  labor  law  which  should  be 
removed. 

MEDICAL   INSPECTION 

In  Cities  and  Towns. — The  beginnings  of  a  system  of  medical 
inspection  of  school  children  are  apparent  in  a  number  of  the  cities 
and  towns.  Thus  far  the  inspection  has  usually  been  made  by  the 
city  health  officer  or  a  physician  appointed  by  the  school  board, 
who  receives  a  small  stipend  for  his  services.  The  examinations 
are  principally  for  throat,  ear,  nose,  and  eye  troubles  and  generally 


Education  85 

occur  once  or  twice  a  year.  In  Birmingham  a  full  time  school  physi- 
cian has  been  employed,  as  well  as  a  trained  nurse,  the  duty  of  the 
latter  being  to  follow  up  the  cases  reported  by  the  physician  and  to 
see  that  proper  treatment  is  given. 

Boards  of  education  and  school  officials  generally  have  failed 
to  grasp  the  full  significance  of  the  movement  for  better  health  edu- 
cation and  because  of  this  the  appropriations  for  carrying  on  this 
work  have  with  few  exceptions  been  meager  and  wholly  insufficient. 

In  Rural  Schools. — Previous  to  1915  medical  inspection  in 
rural  schools  was  practically  unknown,  save  in  a  few  counties  where 
the  school  children  had  been  examined  for  hookworm.  By  amend- 
ing section  706  of  the  Health  Code,  in  1915  the  legislature  made 
possible  the  employment  by  counties  of  full  time  health  officers 
whose  salaries  are  paid  through  the  county  boards  of  revenue. 
Among  other  duties  the  health  officer  is  required  to  visit  every 
school  for  the  purpose  of  inspecting  the  sanitary  arrangements  and 
source  of  water  supply  and  of  making  an  examination  of  all  the  chil- 
dren. He  is  required  to  report  to  the  parents  of  the  children  all 
cases  of  adenoids,  defective  hearing  and  other  defects.  His  duty 
however  ends  here.  It  remains  therefore  for  the  school  authorities 
to  say  whether  the  child  shall  remain  in  school  or  whether  he  shall 
be  excluded  until  the  necessary  treatment  has  been  given.  Such 
inspection  while  inadequate  and  sometimes  poorly  done  is  a  move 
in  the  right  direction. 

Unfortunately  the  employment  of  health  officers  by  the  various 
counties  is  wholly  voluntary.  To  date  only  ten  counties  have  taken 
advantage  of  the  law.  These  are  Walker,  Madison,  Choctaw, 
Elmore,  Jefferson,  Lauderdale,  Colbert,  Pickens,  Talladega  and 
Tuscaloosa.  Lack  of  funds  as  well  as  a  lack  of  interest  is  the  reason 
assigned  for  the  failure  of  the  remaining  counties  to  comply  with 
the  provisions  of  the  law. 

To  guarantee  the  right  sort  of  medical  inspection  from  the 
school  point  of  view,  a  law  is  needed  authorizing  county  boards  of 
education  to  employ  medical  officers  for  the  schools,  or  to  co-operate 
with  county  boards  of  revenue  in  paying  the  salaries  and  traveling 
expenses  of  full  time  county  health  officers.  Authority  also  should 
be  given  for  the  employment  of  school  nurses  to  see  that  school 
children  receive  the  treatment  recommended  by  the  health  officers. 
Legislation  looking  to  this  end  should  be  passed  as  soon  as  possible. 


86  Child  Welfare  in  Alabama 

SCHOOLS,  FOR  BACKWARD,  DEFECTIVE,  AND   DELINQUENT 

CHILDREN 

Markedly  delinquent  children  and  those  who  are  deaf  or  blind 
may  be  sent  to  certain  special  institutions  where  they  are  trained 
at  public  expense.  The  state  maintains  a  school  for  the  deaf  and 
blind  at  Talladega,  an  industrial  school  for  white  boys  at  East  Lake, 
an  industrial  school  for  white  girls  at  Birmingham,  and  a  school 
for  juvenile  negro  law  breakers  at  Mt.  Meigs.  The  ordinary  school 
authorities  have  practically  nothing  whatever  to  do  with  committing 
children  to  these  institutions  for  special  training  and  the  institutions 
themselves  bear  only  a  remote  relation  to  the  public  school 
system. 

For  children  who  are  backward,  who  are  slightly  delinquent, 
or  who  suffer  from  serious  or  even  minor  defects  of  sight  and  hear- 
ing, scant  provisions  have  thus  far  been  made.  While  opportunity 
is  offered  in  many  towns  and  cities  through  summer  schools  and 
special  classes  for  normal  children  to  make  up  work  lost  on  account 
of  sickness  and  other  causes,  no  city  or  town  has  yet  been  able  to 
secure  money  for  the  support  of  schools  for  the  care  of  feeble  minded, 
defective  and  other  sub-normals  who  cannot  be  admitted  to  state 
institutions.  At  present  the  delinquent  boy  ordinarily  is  merely 
"expelled"  from  school,  which  means  that  further  educational 
opportunities  are  denied  him  and  that  he  is  left  free  to  contaminate 
other  children  at  will.  And  the  child  who  is  afflicted  with  poor  eye- 
sight, bad  hearing,  or  constitutional  disorders  of  body  or  mind  has 
no  opportunity  to  pursue  his  studies  except  in  keen  competition 
with  his  unaffiicted  fellows,  who  soon  leave  him  hopelessly  behind. 
Obviously  the  only  thing  left  for  such  a  child  is  to  become  a  "re- 
peater" and  ultimately  drop  out  of  school,  to  stay  out. 

From  failure  to  provide  for  the  support  of  special  schools  it  is 
clear  that  the  people  generally  have  given  little  thought  to  the  edu- 
cational needs  of  those  unfortunate  children  who  are  far  more  num- 
erous than  is  generally  suspected.  The  public  needs  to  be  aroused 
and  probably  the  best  way  to  do  this  is  through  the  dissemination 
of  the  reports  of  truancy  officers  and  the  reports  of  medical  and 
psychological  examinations  of  children  within  school  age  in  the 
various  counties,  cities,  and  towns.  Careful  studies  should  be  made 
to  ascertain  the  facts  and  when  these  facts  are  secured  they  should 
be  made  widely  known. 


Education  87 

KINDERGARTENS 

So  far  as  the  public  school  system  is  concerned,  Mobile  is  the 
only  city  with  a  system  of  well  regulated  kindergartens  properly 
supervised  and  distributed  over  the  city,  and  constituting  a  part  of  the 
public  school  system.  A  number  of  corporations  in  the  Birmingham 
district  and  in  the  cotton  manufacturing  centers  maintain  kindergar- 
tens for  the  children  of  their  employees  as  an  economic  measure. 
For  instance,  at  Lanett  the  cotton  mill  corporation  there  conducts  a 
day  nursery  in  connection  with  the  kindergarten  where  mothers  who 
work  in  the  mills  may  leave  their  small  children  during  the  day. 

That  there  is  a  demand  for  kindergartens  is  evidenced  by  the 
fact  that  in  practically  all  the  cities  one  or  more  kindergartens  are 
taught  as  private  institutions  supported  by  tuition  fees  or  by  phil- 
anthropic organizations.  Even  some  of  the  private  and  denomi- 
national schools  for  negroes  are  maintaining  kindergartens  for  the 
negro  children  of  the  communities  in  which  these  schools  are  located. 

The  educational  possibilities  of  the  kindergarten  are  just 
beginning  to  be  appreciated.  It  is  only  a  matter  of  time  before  this 
new  institution  will  be  made  a  part  of  the  general  school  system  and 
supported  by  public  funds.  In  order  to  do  this,  however,  the  present 
minimum  age  limit  at  which  a  child  may  enter  the  public  schools 
must  be  materially  reduced  and  special  facilities  must  be  afforded 
for  the  professional  training  of  kindergarten  teachers. 

VOCATIONAL  EDUCATION 

The  idea  that  vocational  training  should  form  a  part  of  the 
education  of  every  boy  and  girl  and  that  such  training  should  be 
given  through  the  public  school  is  just  beginning  to  take  hold  in 
Alabama.  Already  in  many  instances  the  elementary  and  high  school 
courses  of  study  are  being  modified  to  meet  the  new  demands  and 
teachers  are  learning  more  and  more  how  to  relate  school  work 
to  the  needs  of  practical  life.  While  there  are  many  handicaps  yet 
to  be  overcome,  the  situation  on  the  whole  with  regard  to  vocational 
education  is  encouraging. 

Although  the  nine  district  agricultural  schools,  in  spite  of  the 
good  intentions  of  the  legislature,  have  for  various  reasons  proven 
failures  as  schools  for  teaching  vocational  agriculture,  and  the  re- 
quirement by  law  that  agriculture  be  taught  in  every  public  school 


88  Child  Welfare  in  Alabama 

has  yielded  poor  results,  vocational  agriculture  and  kindred  occupa- 
tions through  indirect  means  now  form  a  vital  part  of  the  work  of 
many  schools.  Boys'  com  clubs,  pig  clubs,  peanut  clubs,  calf  clubs, 
etc.,  together  with  girls'  canning  clubs,  and  poultry  clubs,  all  or- 
ganized through  the  agency  of  the  teachers,  county  superintendents, 
and  representatives  of  the  Extension  Bureau  of  the  Alabama  Poly- 
technic Institute,  have  accomplished  indirectly  what  the  schools, 
even  with  legislative  assistance,  could  not  themselves  do. 

The  following  facts  submitted  by  Professor  L.  N.  Duncan  show 
to  what  extent  these  clubs  have  been  active: 

Boys'  Clubs. — Boys'  agricultural  clubs  are  now  organized  in 
every  county,  with  a  total  enrollment,  on  May  8,  1918,  of  21,358. 
Below  are  given  the  activities  in  which  these  boys  are  engaged  with 
the  enrollment  in  each  case: 

Number  of  community  clubs 223 

Number  of  com  club  members 2,968 

Number  of  peanut  club  members 1,424 

Number  of  pig  club  members 6,369 

Number  of  calf  club  members 564 

Number  of  emergency  club  members  engaged  in  growing  small  gardens 

and  in  various  other  work 9,914 

Girls'  Clubs. — The  facts  below  represent  what  has  been  ac- 
complished up  to  December  31,  1917.  At  that  time  only  twenty- 
nine  counties  had  been  organized  with  a  woman  county  agent  in 
charge  in  each.  Emergency  women  agents  have  been  appointed 
for  the  remaining  counties  but  their  work  was  begun  too  late  to  be 
included  in  this  report. 

Canning  Clubs. 

Number  of  community  clubs  in  canning  and  home  gardening 429 

Number  of  canning  club  members 4,595 

Number  of  girls  growing  winter  gardens 864 

Number  of  girls  making  demonstration  in  cooking  club  products.  . .  .  1,264 

Number  of  girls  making  demonstration  in  homes 317 

Number  of  caps  and  aprons  made 2,968 

Number  of  dresses  made 188 

Number  of  towels  and  holders  made " 191 

Poultry  Clubs. 

Number  of  poultry  clubs  in  12  counties 34 

Number  of  poultry  club  members 619 


Education  89 

In  this  work  very  decided  improvement  was  made  in  poultry- 
houses,  method  of  feeding,  and  in  the  character  of  the  stock  by 
adding  pure  bred  stock.  In  many  cases  co-operative  egg  marketing 
circles  were  formed  and  the  price  and  quality  of  eggs  very  greatly 
improved. 

As  these  club  activities  all  radiate  from  the  schoolhouse  as  a 
center  and  with  the  teacher  as  one  of  the  directors,  the  elementary 
and  high  school  courses  of  study  as  well  as  the  methods  of  teaching 
especially  in  rural  sections,  are  rapidly  being  adapted  to  community 
needs. 

In  recent  years  manual  training  and  home  economics  have  been 
added  to  the  curriculum  of  practically  all  the  larger  high  schools. 
While  these  subjects  have  been  taught  chiefly  from  the  academic 
point  of  view,  yet  they  have  served  a  useful  purpose  in  preparing  the 
way  for  vocational  training. 

The  Smith-Hughes  Act. — To  encourage  vocational  education  in 
the  several  states  Congress  recently  passed  a  law  known  as  the 
Smith-Hughes  Act  which  appropriates  to  each  state  an  annually 
increasing  sum  of  money  for  the  teaching  of  trades  and  industries, 
agriculture,  and  home  economics.  In  order  however  for  a  state  to 
secure  its  share  of  this  money  it  must  match  dollar  for  dollar  the 
amount  received  from  the  Federal  Government.  Alabama's  pro 
rata  part  for  the  past  year  was  $34,575.42.  This  sum  will  be  gradu- 
ally increased  until  1925  when  it  will  be  $157,060.70. 

Pending  the  meeting  of  the  legislature  in  1919,  the  governor 
last  year  appointed  under  the  terms  of  the  Act  a  committee  known 
as  the  Alabama  Board  for  Vocational  Education  to  organize  a  system 
of  vocational  education  in  the  state  as  provided  by  the  law.  The 
plan  formulated  by  this  board  has  been  accepted  by  the  Federal 
Board  at  Washington  and  already  a  number  of  federal  aided  voca- 
tional schools  are  in  operation. 

After  holding  several  meetings  and  considering  the  vocational 
needs  of  the  State  from  every  angle  the  Alabama  Board  finally 
designated  the  following  colleges  as  institutions  for  the  training  of 
vocational  teachers: 

(White) 

Teachers  of  agriculture Alabama  Polytechnic  Institute. 

Teachers  of  home  economics Alabama  Girls'  Industrial  Institute. 

Teachers  of  trades  and  industries University  of  Alabama. 


90  Child  Welfare  in  Alabama 

(Negro) 
Teachers  of  agriculture,  trades  and  in- 
dustries  Tuskegee  Institute. 

For  the  training  of  teachers  of  agriculture  the  federal  appro- 
priation for  1917-18  was  $4,666.23;  for  the  training  of  teachers  of 
trades  and  industries,  $3,499.67;  for  the  training  of  teachers  of 
home  economics  $3,499.67.  Since  these  appropriations  must  be 
duplicated  by  the  state  and  since  the  colleges  have  no  funds  to  ex- 
pend in  this  way  it  is  clear  that  the  legislature  must  make  the  nec- 
essary appropriations  if  the  work  is  to  continue. 

The  following  schools  have  met  the  requirements  of  the  state 
and  federal  boards  and  are  now  receiving  federal  aid: 

For  Teaching  Trades  and  Industries. 

Day  School Birmingham  High  School. 

Part  Time  Schools Lanette  High  School. 

Fairfax  High  School. 

Langdale  Sub-High  School. 
Evening  Schools Lanette  High  School. 

Fairfax  High  School. 

Langdale  High  School. 

For  Teaching  Home  Economics. 

White None. 

Negro Mobile  County  Training  School,  Plateau. 

For  Teaching  Vocational  Agriculture. 

(White) 

Jefferson  County  High  School Boyles. 

Walker  County  High  School Jasper. 

AUiance  Rural  School Bessemer,  R.  No.  5. 

Pickens  County  High  School Reform. 

Shelby  County  High  School Columbiana. 

Boldo  Rural  School Jasper. 

Pleasantfield  Rural  School. Oakman,  R.  No.  2. 

(Negro) 

Coosa  County  Training  School Cottage  Grove. 

Russell  County  Training  School Scale. 

Conecuh  County  Training  School Evergreen. 

Pickens  County  Training  School Hayneville. 

New  Rising  Star  Rural  School Tuskegee. 


Education 


91 


In  aims  and  purpose,  organization,  courses  of  study,  and 
methods  of  teaching,  the  vocational  school  differs  radically  from  the 
ordinary  type.  Vocational  students  must  engage  in  productive 
labor  during  a  portion  of  the  day  and  the  subjects  studied  by  them 
in  the  class  room  must  be  directly  related  to  the  industry  or  occupa- 
tion for  which  they  are  being  trained. 

Vocational  education  has  long  been  needed  in  Alabama.  Its 
growth  therefore  should  be  carefully  fostered. 

TEACHERS'   SALARIES 

The  figures  submitted  below  are  the  average  salaries  for  rural 
and  urban  teachers  in  eleven  representative  counties.  The  grade  of 
certificates  held  by  teachers  in  the  rural  schools  is  indicated  at  the 
top  of  each  column. 


Rural  Teachers 

Urban 

First  and 

Second 

Third 

Life  Grade 

Grade 

Grade 

Per  Month 

Per  Month 

Per  Month 

Bullock 

$75.00 

$60.00 

$50.00 

$66.50 

Chambers 

60.00 

62.50 

42.50 

70.00 

Colbert 

77.50 

62.50 

50.00 

60.00 

Franklin 

65.00 

52.00 

50.00 

50.00 

Geneva 

67.50 

52.50 

42.50 

50.00 

Limestone 

70.00 

55.00 

40.00 

50.00 

Madison 

72.00 

55.00 

40.00 

60.00 

Montgomery 

75.00 

60.00 

50.00 

72.00 

Pike 

75.00 

60.00 

50.00 

50.00 

Randolph 

60.00 

50.00 

40.00 

45.00 

Walker 

70.00 

55.00 

45.00 

55.00 

Gen'l  average.  . 

$67.00 

$54.77 

$44.71 

$59.18 

It  should  be  said  however,  that  53  counties  have  voted  local  taxes  under 
the  Act  of  1915.  In  these  counties  teachers'  salaries  for  1918-19  will  average 
probably  25  per  cent  higher. 


As  the  rural  schools  are  in  session  on  an  average  of  138  days, 
the  loiral  teacher  holding  a  life  grade  or  a  first  grade  certificate 
receives  for  his  year's  work  $462.30;  while  the  teacher  holding  a 
second    grade   certificate   receives   $377.91 ;     and    the    third    grade 


92  Child  Welfare  in  Alabama 

teacher  gets  $308.50.  Since  the  average  school  term  in  incorporated 
cities  and  towns  is  176  days  the  year's  salary  for  the  average  urban 
teacher  is  $520.78. 

From  her  salary,  pitifully  small,  the  teacher  is  expected  to  pay 
a  good  sum  for  board  in  the  best  home  in  the  community,  to  con- 
tribute liberally  to  the  church  and  to  charity,  to  buy  books  and 
magazines,  to  dress  well,  and  to  spend  at  least  six  weeks  at  a  sum- 
mer school  each  year.  In  view  of  all  this  it  is  small  wonder  that 
annually  many  teachers  leave  the  profession  never  to  return. 

TEACHER  TRAINING 

For  High  School  Teachers. — To  give  professional  preparation 
to  prospective  high  school  teachers  and  to  teachers  already  in  ser- 
vice, departments  of  education  have  in  recent  years  been  established 
at  the  University  of  Alabama,  Alabama  Polytechnic  Institute, 
Alabama  Technical  Institute  for  Girls,  and  at  the  denominational 
colleges  at  Binningham,  Athens,  and  Montgomery.  Upon  gradua- 
tion students  in  these  institutions  who  have  completed  as  much 
as  seven  hours  of  prescribed  work  in  Education  are  granted  a  first 
grade  certificate  by  the  State  Board  of  Examiners.  Under  the  regu- 
lations of  this  board  the  professor  of  education  in  each  college  must 
be  a  specialist  in  his  field  and  must  devote  his  full  time  to  the  teach- 
ing of  education.  As  it  is  rapidly  becoming  the  practice  to  employ 
only  college  graduates  both  in  city  and  in  county  high  schools,  the 
time  will  soon  come  when  only  professionally  trained  teachers  will 
be  found  in  these  schools.  The  tendency  at  present  on  the  part  of 
many  untrained  high  school  teachers  to  enroll  in  summer  schools  for 
the  purpose  of  taking  courses  in  education  is  highly  significant  and 
bodes  well  for  the  future. 

For  Elementary  Teachers. — The  agencies  for  training  ele- 
mentary teachers  are  numerous  and  some  of  them  well  organized. 
Foremost  are  the  four  class  A  normal  schools  whose  course  of  study 
covers  four  years  and  is  based  on  two  years  of  high  school  work. 
The  length  of  the  normal  school  term  was  recently  extended  to  eleven 
months  in  order  to  accommodate  an  increasingly  larger  number  of 
teachers  who  wish  to  attend  each  summer.  Each  institution  main- 
tains an  observation  and  practice  school  of  seven  grades  and  every 
student  before  graduation  is  required  to  do  a  certain  amount  of 


Education  93 

practice  teaching  under  competent  supervision.  The  course  of 
study  of  the  two  class  B  normal  schools  is  four  years  in  length  and 
is  based  on  seven  years  of  elementary  work.  In  many  ways  the  class 
B  schools  are  handicapped  in  their  educational  efforts. 

Among  the  remaining  agencies  the  Summer  School  for  Teachers 
at  the  University  of  Alabama  exerts  possibly  the  most  powerful  in- 
fluence on  the  teaching  standards  of  the  state.  Here  are  gathered 
for  six  weeks  each  year  between  700  and  800  progressive  teachers 
intent  upon  the  pursuit  of  studies  which  will  broaden  their  mental 
vision  and  increase  their  power  for  usefulness  in  the  school  room. 
During  the  simimer  school  the  entire  equipment  and  resources  of  the 
University  are  thrown  open  to  the  public  school  teachers.  The 
summer  schools  at  the  Alabama  Girls'  Technical  Institute  and  the 
Alabama  Polytechnic  Institute  are  well  organized  and  meet  the 
needs  of  many  teachers. 

The  county  institute,  which  every  teacher  is  required  to  attend 
and  which  is  in  session  four  days  in  each  county  annually,  is  of 
great  value  in  stimulating  educational  interest  and  in  unifying  school 
room  practice  throughout  the  state.  Professionally  trained  con- 
ductors have  charge  of  these  institutes  and  teachers  of  merit  have 
I)laces  on  the  programs. 

In  addition  to  the  foregoing  there  must  be  mentioned  the 
Alabama  Educational  Association  which  meets  annually  in  one  of 
the  large  cities.  The  programs  are  inspirational  and  the  round  table 
discussions  of  much  benefit  to  the  2,000  or  more  teachers  who  usually 
attend. 

In  spite  of  all  efforts  that  have  been  put  forth  it  can  not  be  said 
that  any  considerable  portion  of  the  8,000  or  more  elementary  teach- 
ers have  been  professionally  trained.  Nor  is  there  any  immediate 
prospect  that  a  large  number  of  them  will  be.  Low  salaries,  short 
terms,  and  general  indifference  cause  many  teachers  to  leave  the 
profession  each  year  and  unfortunately  their  places  are  taken  by 
raw  recruits  who  in  turn  leave  after  a  short  while. 


CERTIFICATION   OF   TEACHERS 

Certificates  from  the  State  Board  of  Examiners  are  required  of 
all  who  teach  in  the  jmbhc  schools  of  Alabama.  These  certificates 
arc  divided  into  four  classes,  third  grade,  second  grade,  first  grade, 


94  Child  Welfare  in  Alabama 

and  life  grade,  and  are  secured  by  passing  successfully  examinations 
in  the  following  subjects  prescribed  by  law: 

Third  Grade. — Orthography,  reading,  penmanship,  grammar, 
practical  arithmetic,  United  States  history,  geography,  the  elemen- 
tary principles  of  physiology  and  hygiene,  and  agriculture. 

Second  Grade. — All  the  foregoing  branches  with  additional 
requirements  in  arithmetic,  history  of  Alabama,  English  grammar 
and  literature,  intermediate  geography,  United  States  history,  civics, 
and  class  management. 

First  Grade. — All  of  the  foregoing  branches,  and  also  algebra, 
geometry,  physics,  elementary  psychology,  the  school  laws  of  Ala- 
bama, and  advanced  English. 

Graduates  of  state  institutions  of  higher  learning  are  granted 
first  grade  certificates.  Provision  is  also  made  for  validating  cer- 
tificates from  other  states. 

Life  Grade. — The  applicant  must  have  taught  at  least  five  years 
under  a  first  grade  certificate,  and  in  addition  must  pass  an  exami- 
nation in  the  history  of  education. 

The  number  of  white  teachers  in  Alabama  who  hold  certificates 
is  as  follows: 

Teachers  holding  third  grade  certificates 2,075 

Teachers       "       second    "  "         3,264 

Teachers       "        first        "  "  1,724 

Teachers       "       life  "  "         1,182 

Total 8,245 

The  law  makes  no  provisions  whatever  for  testing  the  appli- 
cants' knowledge  of  the  recently  added  elementary  subjects,  music, 
drawing,  painting,  manual  training,  sewing,  cooking,  etc.,  nor  does 
it  take  into  account  that  subjects  other  than  algebra,  geometry, 
physics,  and  English  are  taught  in  the  high  school.  Professional 
fitness  for  teaching  is  practically  ignored,  except  that  the  State 
Board  of  Examiners  is  in  the  habit  of  basing  some  of  the  questions 
upon  method.  This  necessarily  involves  experience.  The  possession 
of  even  a  first  grade  or  a  life  grade  certificate  by  no  means  signifies 
that  the  holder  is  prepared  to  teach  in  a  modem  public  school. 

Obviously  the  law  is  antiquated  and  should  be  changed.  It  has 
served  a  useful  purpose  and  has  been  well  administered,  but  it  can 
no  longer  satisfy  the  increasing  needs  of  a  developing  school  system. 


Education  95 

The  horizontal  system  of  certification  instead  of  the  present 
vertical  system  should  be  adopted.  The  certificates  granted  should 
be  based  on  the  applicants'  academic,  technical,  and  professional 
preparation  for  teaching  in  the  primary  grades,  in  the  intermediate 
and  grammar  grades,  and  in  the  high  school  grades.  Special  cer- 
tificates should  be  issued  for  teaching  music,  drawing,  home  eco- 
nomics, manual  training,  agriculture,  and  other  subjects  of  like 
nature. 

RECOMMENDATIONS 

1.  The  various  parts  of  the  entire  public  school  system  should 
be  more  closely  articulated  for  the  purpose  of  securing  greater  effi- 
ciency by  eliminating  needless  waste  and  duplication  of  effort.  To 
this  end  a  State  Board  of  Education  should  be  created  to  take  the 
place  of  the  many  independent  boards  of  tmstees  which  now  have 
charge  of  the  various  secondary  and  higher  institutions.  (The 
method  of  control  of  the  University  of  Alabama  and  the  Alabama 
Polytechnic  Institute  is  prescribed  by  the  state  constitution.) 

2.  The  method  of  choosing  the  State  Superintendent  of  Edu- 
cation prescribed  in  the  state  constitution  should  be  changed  as 
early  as  practicable.  This  official  should  be  selected  on  merit  alone 
by  a  State  Board  of  Education  or  some  other  non-partisan  organiza- 
tion and  should  be  kept  in  office  as  long  as  efficient  service  is  rendered. 

3.  The  State  Superintendent  of  Education  should  be  provided 
with  a  sufficient  number  of  assistants  to  enable  him  to  keep  in  close 
touch  with  educational  conditions  in  every  county  in  the  state. 

4.  A  better  method  for  financing  the  three  higher  institutions 
of  learning,  University  of  Alabama,  Alabama  Polytechnic  Institute, 
and  Alabama  Girls'  Technical  Institute,  should  be  devised  as  early 
as  possible.  The  usefulness  of  these  institutions  is  greatly  handi- 
capped by  failure  to  secure  funds  appropriated  by  the  legislature  in 
recent  years.  Immediate  relief  from  some  source  is  imperatively 
necessary. 

5.  The  law  prescribing  the  subjects  required  for  teaching  cer- 
tificates should  be  changed.  While  the  scholarship  requirement 
should  not  be  lost  sight  of,  professional  preparation  should  be  stressed. 
The  horizontal  plan  of  certification  should  be  adopted. 

6.  The  "mild"  compulsory  education  law  passed  by  the  leg- 
islature needs  strengthening  in  a  number  of  places:    (1)    The  points 


96  Child  Welfare  in  Alabama 

of  conflict  between  this  law  and  the  child  labor  law  should  be  elimi- 
nated. (2)  The  length  of  the  period  of  compulsory  attendance  should 
be  gradually  extended.  (3)  A  better  method  of  providing  for  the 
salaries  of  truancy  ofificers  should  be  adopted.  (4)  The  law  is  too 
liberal  in  granting  excuses  from  school  attendance. 

7.  Provisions  should  be  made  by  which  kindergartens  may  be 
supported  from  public  school  funds. 

8.  Adequate  appropriations  should  be  made  by  the  state  to 
secure  in  full  Alabama's  part  of  the  federal  money  for  vocational 
education  given  under  the  terms  of  the  Smith-Hughes  Act. 

9.  Medical  supervision  of  all  children  of  school  age  should  be 
provided  for  by  law. 

10.  All  county  health  officers  and  school  physicians  should  be 
required  to  investigate  carefully  conditions  relating  to  lighting, 
heating,  ventilation,  sanitation,  and  the  water  supply  of  both  urban 
and  mral  schools.  These  officials  should  be  empowered  to  employ 
remedial  measures  wherever  necessary. 

11.  The  nine  district  agricultural  schools  should  be  converted 
into  federal-aided  schools  for  teaching  vocational  agriculture,  and 
possibly  home  economics,  in  accordance  with  the  Smith-Hughes 
Act. 

12.  As  far  as  possible  cities  and  towns,  as  well  as  the  various 
counties,  should  make  provisions  for  teaching  backward,  defective, 
and  delinquent  children,  whose  condition  is  not  serious  enough  to 
warrant  sending  them  to  a  state  institution.  As  a  nile  a  special 
type  of  school  in  which  motor  activities  predominate  are  necessary 
for  such  children. 

13.  All  teacher  training  agencies  should  be  fostered  and  given 
support  commensurate  with  the  work  they  are  doing. 

14.  Negro  education  should  be  encouraged  as  far  as  possible. 
County  health  officers  and  school  physicians  should  see  that  the 
same  standards  of  sanitation  and  health  are  observed  in  negro 
schools  as  in  white  schools. 


NEGRO   EDUCATION 

Character  of  Negro  Schools. — Public  school  facilities  for  negro 
children  are  limited.  In  rural  districts  schools  are  taught  in  all  sorts 
of  buildings,  badly  constructed  and  poorly  equipped.     They  lack 


Education  97 

the  necessan^  maps,  charts,  and  Hbraries  for  effective  teaching. 
The  average  length  of  school  term  now  is  104  days,  an  increase  of 
7  days  in  the  last  five  years.  The  average  salary  of  the  teacher  is 
S152.  Five  years  ago  it  was  S137.  The  average  number  of  pupils 
per  teacher  is  70,  the  average  for  the  white  being  40. 

Irregular  attendance  is  noticeable  in  negro  schools.  In  most 
counties  the  negro  schools  are  in  session  five  months,  beginning  near 
the  middle  of  October  and  closing  about  the  middle  of  March.  The 
children  are  kept  at  home  to  pick  cotton  and  velvet  beans  and  to 
gather  other  crops  on  the  farms  of  either  white  land-owners  or  negro 
parents,  and  on  this  account  it  is  usuall}'-  late  in  December  before  a 
majority  of  the  children  are  in  the  schools.  The  attendance  at  this 
time  then  runs  up  to  as  high  as  150  pupils  to  the  teacher  in  badly 
crowded  rooms.  This  condition  continues  for  two  and  one-half  or 
three  months  until  the  larger  pupils  drop  out  to  commence  farming 
operations  in  the  early  spring.  Some  of  the  children  walk  as  far  as 
four  or  five  miles  each  way  to  school,  over  muddy  roads,  and  in  all 
sorts  of  weather,  and  arrive  at  the  school  building  at  any  time  be- 
fore twelve  o'clock.  They  commence  leaving  for  home  about  three 
o'clock.  Many  are  kept  at  home  for  the  smallest  excuse  by  their 
parents.  The  percentage  of  attendance  in  1917  was  62,  which  is 
practicall}^  the  same  as  for  whites. 

The  character  and  qualifications  of  the  teachers  determine 
almost  entirely  the  nature  of  the  instniction  given.  As  a  rule  it  may 
be  said  that  the  schoolhouses  are  neatly  kept  and  that  a  majority 
of  schools  teach  some  form  of  handwork,  either  elementary  manual 
training  for  the  boys,  or  sewing  and  cooking,  where  the  equipment 
permits,  for  the  girls. 

There  has  been  practically  no  effort  on  the  part  of  school  offi- 
cials to  enforce  the  compulsory  education  law  with  the  negroes, 
many  feeling  that  the  schools  are  too  badly  overcrowded  already. 
As  soon  as  facilities  permit  the  law  can  be  enforced  with  very  little 
effort  as  the  children  are  anxious  to  attend  school.  There  is  needed 
however  a  quickening  of  pulDlic  sentiment  among  negro  parents 
with  reference  to  regular  attendance  and  punctualit3^ 

Schools  of  Macon  County. — The  negro  schools  in  Macon  County 
are  probably  the  best  for  negroes  in  the  state.  Through  stimula- 
tion of  the  Extension  Department  of  Tuskegee  during  the  past  ten 
years  many  new  buildings  have  been  erected  and  provided  with 


98  Child  Welfare  in  Alabama 

fairly  good  equipment.  Of  the  60  schools  in  the  county  20 
have  two  or  more  class  rooms,  8  are  furnished  with  domestic 
science  equipment,  16  conduct  school  farms,  and  5  have  teachers' 
homes.  The  county  board  of  education  is  enabled  through 
the  Jeanes  Fund  to  employ  two  negro  women  as  supervising  in- 
dustrial teachers  to  conduct  club  work  among  the  girls  and  their 
mothers,  and  one  man,  a  graduate  in  agriculture,  to  look  after  the 
club  work  among  the  boys.  The  report  for  the  past  year  shows 
the  following  facts  relating  to  the  negro  boys'  clubs: 

Number  of  pig  clubs  organized 10 

Number  of  active  members 120 

Number  who  made  final  report 84 

Number  of  pounds  of  pork  killed  by  members 23,420 

Number  of  boys  planting  one  or  more  acres  in  corn 52 

Number  of  boys  planting  one  or  more  acres  in  peanuts 15 

Number  of  boys  planting  one  or  more  acres  in  velvet  beans 17 

School  Buildings  in  Cities  and  Towns. — In  cities  of  the  first 
class  there  is,  as  a  rule,  one  fairly  good  negro  school  building  and  a 
number  of  old  buildings  in  a  more  or  less  bad  state  of  repair.  The 
schools  generally  are  badly  overcrowded  and  the  play  grounds  are 
small  and  lack  equipment.  In  many  small  towns  the  conditions 
are  worse  than  in  the  rural  districts.  The  towns  usually  have  spent 
all  their  money  from  the  sale  of  bonds  on  paving,  lights,  water  and 
sewerage  system  and  for  building  much  needed  schoolhouses  for 
white  children.  Consequently  there  are  no  funds  available  for 
negro  schoolhouses.  Such  funds  as  are  secured  must  therefore  be 
raised  by  private  contributions.  Often  interested  white  citizens 
contribute  liberally  to  the  erection  of  a  negro  schoolhouse.  In  two 
instances  town  councils  have  borrowed  money  with  which  to  erect 
a  schoolhouse  for  negro  children. 

In  most  cities  and  towns,  large  and  small,  the  sentiment  of  the 
leading  city  officials  and  school  authorities  is  in  favor  of  better 
educational  facilities  for  negro  children.  The  securing  of  necessary 
funds  is  the  chief  difficulty. 

Kind  of  Buildings. — More  than  80  per  cent  of  the. negro  schools 
in  the  state  are  taught  in  one-room  buildings.  The  number  of 
schools  deeded  to  the  state  is  138,  to  the  county  17,  to  local  negro 
trustees  631,  the  number  owned  by  private  individuals,  churches  or 
lodges  1,206,  and  those  belonging  to  the  city  50,  making  a  total  of 


Education  99 

2,042.  Practically  90  per  cent  of  the  school  buildings  for  negro 
children  are  o\^Tied  by  private  parties  or  organizations. 

Nature  of  Training. — The  training  given  negro  children  is  al- 
most entirely  devoted  to  work  in  the  first  five  grades.  As  the 
majority  of  schools  have  only  one  teacher,  the  classes  are  overcrowded 
and  the  conditions  for  teaching  are  poor.  Three-fourths  of  the 
teachers  are  women  and  one-fourth  are  men,  33  per  cent  of  the 
children  attend  school  in  the  first  grade,  19  per  cent  in  the  second, 
15  per  cent  in  the  third,  13  per  cent  in  the  fourth,  12  per  cent  in  the 
fifth,  6  per  cent  in  the  sixth,  and  2  per  cent  in  the  seventh. 

Since  the  majority  of  negro  children  are  being  trained  in  one- 
teacher  schools  and  are  nearly  all  enrolled  in  the  first  five  grades, 
so  far  as  possible,  efforts  should  be  made  to  improve  schools  of  this 
type.  By  the  time  the  child  has  finished  the  fifth  grade  he  should 
have  completed  the  primary  books  in  the  course  of  study,  acquired 
habits  of  thrift  and  punctuality,  received  good  rudimentary  instruc- 
tion in  sanitation  and  household  industry,  and  become  at  least  a 
literate  person.  This  task  set  before  the  negro  teachers  of  the  state 
is  not  too  great  for  attainment. 

Attitude  of  White  People  to  Negro  Education. — A  hopeful 
feature  at  present  is  the  growing  sentiment  among  white  people  in 
favor  of  the  education  of  negro  children.  An  evidence  of  this  is  the 
fact  that  in  1913  only  544  visits  were  made  by  the  county  superin- 
tendents to  the  1972  or  more  negro  schools  in  the  state,  while  in 
1917  the  number  of  visits  increased  to  1794.  The  policies  adopted 
by  educational  foundations  and  boards  with  reference  to  assisting 
negro  education  has  also  had  a  marked  effect  on  public  sentiment. 
Recognizing  that  the  business  of  education  belongs  to  the  state 
and  not  to  private  agencies,  they  are  following  the  policy  of  assist- 
ing public  school  authorities  in  building  up  a  system  of  public 
supported  and  controlled  schools  for  negro  children.  The  Jeanes 
Fund  therefore  turns  over  money  to  the  county  boards  of  education 
to  be  used  for  employing  negro  women  to  teach  industrial  work  in 
negro  schools.  The  Rosenwald  Fund  will  give  money  only  for  the 
erection  of  a  school  building  that  has  been  deeded  to  the  state  and 
is  under  the  control  of  the  public  school  authorities.  The  Slater 
Fund  assists  in  the  establishment  of  county  training  schools  only 
where  the  property  belongs  to  the  county  or  state  and  is  controlled 
by  the  county  board  of  education  or  other  school  officials.    The 


100  Child  Welfare  in  Alabama 

General  Education  Board  helps  the  State  Department  of  Education 
to  maintain  a  rural  school  agent  whose  work  is  to  develop  sentiment 
in  favor  of  better  schools. 

The  people  generally  are  beginning  to  realize  that  the  health, 
economic,  moral  and  spiritual  development  of  the  negro  population 
is  necessary  for  the  full  prosperity  of  the  state.  For  this  reason 
white  people  have  been  very  s}rmpathetic  and  helpful  in  the  estab- 
lishment of  rural  schools  and  county  training  schools  for  negro 
children  and  have  contributed  to  the  erection  of  practically  every 
negro  schoolhouse  that  has  been  built  during  the  past  five  years. 


RURAL  SCHOOL  ATTENDANCE* 
Eva  Joffe 

Statistician,  National  Child  Labor  Committee 

Alabama,  mth  a  population  according  to  the  census  of  1910 
of  2,138,093,  the  per  cent  of  illiterates  among  those  ten  years  of 
age  and  over  being  22.9,  passed  a  compulsory  school  attendance 
law  in  1915,  which  took  effect  October  1,  1917.  Alm^ost  a  yearf 
later  the  National  Child  Labor  Committee  undertook  an  inves- 
tigation of  rural  school  attendance,  with  the  kind  cooperation 
of  the  State  Superintendent  of  Education.  The  visits  to  the  schools 
selected  were  made  by  three  Alabama  public  school  teachers  and 
one  agent  of  the  Committee.  With  the  approval  of  the  State 
Superintendent  of  Education,  these  twelve  counties  were  chosen: 
Lauderdale  and  Madison  in  the  north;  Etowah  in  the  northeast; 
Chambers  in  the  east;  Barbour  in  the  southeast;  Escambia,  Cone- 
cuh, and  Mobile  in  the  south;  Washington  in  the  southwest;  Pickens 
and  Hale  in  the  west,  and  Chilton  in  the  central  part.  Six  of  these 
(Chilton,  Coneculi,  Escambia,  Hale,  Pickens  and  Washington) 
are  purely  rui'al  wdth  no  cities  or  towns  of  2,500  inhabitants  or 
over.  The  other  six,  though  having  some  urban  population,  were 
chosen  as  typical  of  the  conditions  prevailing  in  rural  Alabama. 

The  visits  to  the  schools  were  made  during  the  last  week  of 
March  and  the  beginning  of  April,  and  as  most  of  the  schools  close 
in  April,  the  records  copied  cover  the  greater  part  of  the  term. 
The  information  was  obtained  for  151  schools  for  the  nimiber  of  days 
the  schools  were  in  session  up  to  the  date  of  the  visits,  and  consists 
of  the  nimiber  of  days  children  8  to  15  years  old  inclusive,  attended, 
the  number  of  days  they  were  absent,  their  ages  at  the  beginning 
of  the  term,  the  grades  they  were  in  and  whether  or  not  they  would 
be  promoted.  All  this  information,  save  the  promotion,  was  copied 
from  the  teachers'  record  books.     The  causes  of  absence  and  nimiber 


*The  data  on  which  this  study  is  based  were  gathered  by  Misses  Mary 
Chapman,  Eva  G.  Frasier,  f  )ra  Scott  and  Florence  I.  Taylor. 
fNearly  at  the  end  of  the  following  school  term. 

101 


102  Child  Welfare  in  Alabama 

of  days  of  absence  for  each  cause  were  obtained  by  consulting  the 
teachers.  This,  of  course,  can  be  only  approximately  accurate 
because  the  teachers  could  give  it  only  from  memory  or  by  con- 
sulting each  child  (who  in  tvam.  had  to  consult  his  memory).  But 
no  such  information  can  be  considered  absolutely  accurate  even 
when  a  written  statement  of  the  cause  signed  by  the  parent  is 
required,  because  the  parent  being  in  most  cases  just  as  anxious 
to  have  the  child's  record  clear  as  the  child  is  to  have  it  so,  may 
invent  some  legitimate  excuse.  On  the  other  hand,  a  teacher  in 
a  rural  community  is  in  a  position  to  know  the  real  cause  very 
much  better  than  a  city  teacher. 

In  a  previous  study  made  in  Oklahoma,  the  fact  was  revealed 
that  the  children  of  tenants  were  more  retarded  and  absent  a  greater 
number  of  days  than  those  of  home  owners.  For  this  reason,  in- 
formation was  again  sought  as  to  home  tenure  of  the  parent  or 
guardian.  All  children  are  classified  as  "owners'  children,"  ''tenants' 
children"  and  "tenancy  not  specified"  where  such  information  was 
unobtainable. 

The  record  of  each  child's  attendance  is  available  only  for 
the  time  he  is  registered  in  a  school,  and  those  who  move  into  a 
district  after  the  opening  of  school  or  move  out  before  the  end  of 
the  term,  have  only  a  partial  record  of  attendance  in  the  district. 
There  was  no  attempt  on  the  part  of  the  investigators  to  follow 
up  cases  of  this  kind.  All  such  children  were  classified  under  the 
heading  of  "migrants,"  and  the  children  living  in  the  district  to  which 
the  visited  schools  belonged  at  the  time  of  school-opening  and  still 
living  there  at  the  time  of  the  investigators'  visit  to  the  school, 
were  classified  as  "non-migrants." 

The  children  absent  for  any  reason,  were  classified  as: 
Farmworkers — those  absent  for  farmwork  even  though  absent 

for  other  causes  also; 
Houseworkers — those  absent  for  housework  even  though  absent 
also  for  other  causes  (in  the  few  cases  where 
children  were  absent  both  for  farmwork  and 
housework,  they  were  classified  as  "farm- 
workers" if  the  greater  number  of  days  had 
been  devoted  to  farmwork,  and  as  "house- 
workers"  if  housework  had  been  responsible  for 
most  of  their  absence); 


Riiral  School  Attendance 


103 


Other  classified  absentees — all  those  absent  for  other  specified 

causes    exclusive    of    farmwork    or 
housework;  and 
Non-classified  absentees — all  those  absent  for  some  unspecified 

cause    who    could    not    be    included 
under  the  first  two  headings. 

TABLE    A 

NUMBER    OF    SCHOOLS    VISITED    AND    ENROLLMENT     OF    BOYS    AND 
GIRLS,    8-15    YEARS    INCLUSIVE,    BY   COUNTIES 


Number  of 

Counties 

Schools 
visited 

Boys 

Girls 

Total 

Barbour 

13 
15 
14 

14 
15 

8 
13 

9 
11 
14 
13 
12 

237 
240 
273 
321 
335 
162 
110 
234 
352 
300 
151 
160 

204 
221 
278 
261 
292 
151 
155 
260 
313 
259 
156 
158 

441 

Chambers 

461 

Chilton 

551 

Conecuh 

582 

Escambia 

627 

Etowah 

313 

Hale 

265 

Lauderdale 

494 

Madison 

665 

Mobile 

559 

Pickens 

307 

Washington 

316 

Total 

151 

2,875 

2,706 

5,581 

In  Table  A,  we  have  the  number  of  schools  visited  in  each 
county  and  the  number  of  children  whose  records  were  obtained. 
There  were  2,875  boys  or  51.5  per  cent  of  the  total  and  2,706  girls 
or  48.5  per  cent  of  the  total.  This  table  is  the  only  one  showing 
figures  for  counties.  As  a  county  is  too  small  a  unit  to  base  con- 
clusions upon,  in  succeeding  tables  the  figures  for  all  the  twelve 
counties  have  been  combined. 

Table  B  gives  the  number  of  boys  and  girls  classified  by 
absentee  groups  and  home  tenure  of  parents.  The  owners'  children 
niunbered  3,183  or  57  per  cent  of  the  total;  the  tenants'  children 
numbered  2,239  or  40  per  cent  of  the  total;  and  there  were  159  or 
3  per  cent  for  whom  home  tenure  could  not  be  ascertained.     Farm- 


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11 

Rural  School  Attendance  105 

work  was  done  by  818  (56  per  cent)  non-migrant  owners'  boys  and 
by  466  (64  per  cent)  tenants'  boys.  Of  the  1,382  owners'  girls 
only  277  or  20  per  cent  were  farmworkers  but  of  the  693  tenants* 
girls  32  per  cent  worked  on  the  farm.  Many  of  the  girls  did  house- 
work, and  if  the  figures  for  houseworkers  are  added,  we  have  40 
per  cent  for  OA\Tiers'  and  48  per  cent  for  tenants'  children  who  did 
either  housework  or  farmwork.  Very  few  of  the  boys  did  any 
housework  and  therefore  it  is  hardly  worth  while  to  add  them  to 
the  number  of  farmworkers.  Among  the  migrants'  children  only 
24  per  cent  were  farmworking  owmers'  boys  and  26  per  cent  farm- 
working  tenants'  boys.  Among  the  migrants'  girls  nearly  10  per 
cent  of  both  the  home  owners  and  the  tenants  were  farmworkers. 

The  small  percentage  of  farmworkers  among  migrants  is  in  all 
probabilty  due  to  the  incomplete  information  for  this  class.  As 
no  attempt  was  made  to  follow  up  such  children,  it  is  impossible 
to  tell  whether  a  child  who  was  present  only  for  a  short  time  in  the 
schools  visited  had  gone  to  school  at  all  in  another  district.  A 
child  may  have  done  farmwork  in  the  school  term  before  moving 
into  the  district  and  none  while  enrolled  in  the  school  visited,  and 
would  therefore  not  be  included  among  the  farmworkers  but  in  some 
other  group.  For  this  reason,  in  all  the  following  tables  the 
migrants'  children  are  classified  only  for  home  tenure  of  parents. 
There  must  of  necessity  be  some  duplication  in  the  number  of 
migrants,  but  as  it  is  likely  that  the  duplications  tend  to  balance 
one  another  it  does  not  appreciably  change  the  findings. 

Tables  C  and  D  give  the  total  number  of  days  the  boys  and 
girls  should  have  attended;  the  number  of  days  they  were  absent 
from  the  schools  visited  because  of  having  lived  in  other  districts; 
the  total  number  of  days  they  were  present;  and  the  total  loss 
of  time  for  all  causes.  The  number  of  days  of  absence  for  two 
migrant  boys,  one  non-migrant  boy,  and  three  migrant  girls  was 
not  obtained  for  each  cause  separately.  This  accounts  for  the 
discrepancy  in  the  totals  between  tables  C  and  D,  and  table  B. 

The  absences  of  migrants  are  divided  into  two  categories:  first, 
those  due  to  work,  illness,  etc.,  in  the  districts  visited;  second,  the 
periods  in  the  same  school  term  when  the  children  had  lived 
in  other  districts.  From  this  wc  see  that  all  migrant  boys 
were  absent  from  the  schools  visited  51  per  cent  of  the  term 
because  they  had  lived  part  of  the  time  elsewhere,  in  addition  to 


106  Child  Welfare  in  Alabama 

the  time  they  missed  for  various  other  reasons  while  enrolled.  The 
absences  of  tenants'  boys  due  to  such  late  enrollment  or  early  with- 
drawal extended  over  58  per  cent  of  the  term.  The  girls  were 
absent  in  the  same  proportion.  To  what  extent  duplications  of 
children  ocpur  among  the  migrants  it  is  impossible  to  learn,  but 
even  if  the  per  cent  of  absentees  were  reduced  through  the  corrected 
number  of  children,  the  reduction  would  not  be  considerable.  It 
therefore  stands  to  reason  that  no  conclusion  as  to  the  cause  of 
absence  can  be  drawn  from  such  incomplete  records. 

In  these  tables  we  see  that  all  owners'  non-migrant  boys  were 
absent  29  per  cent  of  the  time  they  should  have  attended  as  com- 
pared with  39  per  cent  for  the  tenants'  boys.  When  the  farm- 
workers are  considered,  the  owners'  boys  are  seen  to  have  been 
absent  33  per  cent  and  the  tenants'  boys  40  per  cent.  Other 
classified  boy  absentees  who  belonged  to  home-owning  families, 
were  absent  21  per  cent  and  the  tenants'  boys  37  per  cent.  For 
girls  the  same  tendency  is  found;  all  non -migrant  owners'  girls 
were  absent  24  per  cent  of  the  time  they  should  have  attended  as 
compared  with  33  per  cent  for  the  tenants'  girls;  farmworking 
owners'  girls  30  per  cent,  as  compared  with  36  per  cent  for  farm- 
working  tenants'  girls.  Among  the  houseworkers  the  owners' 
girls  were  absent  27  per  cent  and  the  tenants'  28  per  cent.  Other 
classified  girl  absentees  whose  parents  owned  their  homes  were 
absent  19  per  cent  of  the  period  they  should  have  attended  and 
the  tenants'  girls  32  per  cent. 

In  reference  to  the  observance  of  the  compulsory  attendance 
law,  the  per  cent  of  absence  is  of  little  importance  because  the  law 
does  not  demand  full  attendance.  It  requires  that  children  between 
the  ages  of  8  and  15  years  inclusive,*  attend  at  least  80  days  in  each 
scholastic  year,  unless  the  county  board  of  education  or  the  board 
of  education  of  an  incorporated  city  or  town  reduces  the  term  to 
not  fewer  than  60  days.  Therefore  where  the  term  is  long,  all 
absences  after  80  days  are  legitimate;  but  with  regard  to  the 
waste  of  the  community's  money  occasioned  by  failure  to  make 
steady  use  of  the  school  facilities,  the  per  cent  of  absence  becomes 
quite  significant.  It  is  also  important  to  know  to  what  extent 
the  parents  fully  avail  themselves  of  the  opportunity  for  the  educa- 
tion of  their  children. 


*Interpreted  by  the  State  Superintendent  of  Education  to  mean  up  to  the 
fifteenth  year. 


Rural  School  Attendance 


107 


TABLE    C 

NUMBER  OF  DAYS  THE  BOYS*  SHOULD  HAVE  ATTENDED  UP  TO  DATE 
OF  VISITS  TO  SCHOOLS;  NUMBER  OF  DAYS  PRESENT  AND 
ABSENT,  BY  ABSENTEE  GROUPS  AND  HOME  TENURE  OF  PARENTS 


Number 

of 

Boys 

Number  of  Days  the  Children 

Should 

have 

attended 

Were 
absent 
on   ac- 
count of 
living  in 
other  dis- 
tricts 

Were 
present 

Were 
absent 

Owners'  Boys 

Migrants 

145 
1,461 

17,498 
175,943 

8,868 

6,841 
125,784 

1,789 

Non-Migrants 

50,159 

Farmworkers 

818 

8 

516 

119 

98,861 

908 

61,774 

14,400 

66,352 

655 

48,732 

10,045 

32,509 

Houseworkers 

253 

Other  classified  absentees 
Non-classified  absentees . 

13,042 
4,355 

Tenants'  Boys 

Migrants 

422 
723 

52,117 
87,077 

30,332 

16,832 
52,989 

4,953 

Non-Migrants 

34,088 

Farmworkers 

465 
10 

197 
51 

56,678 
1,187 

23,200 
6,012 

33,744 

790 

14,721 

3,734 

22,934 

Houseworkers 

397 

Other  classified  absentees 
Non-classified  absentees. 

8,479 
2,278 

Total  t 

Migrants 

593 
2,253 

72,832 
271,198 

40,648 

25,076 
184,331 

7,108 

Non-Migrants 

86,867 

Farmworkers 

1,315 

19 

734 

185 

159,359 
2,215 

87,477 
22,147 

102,630 

1,520 

65,160 

15,021 

56,729 

Houseworkers 

695 

Other  classified  absentees 
Non-classified  absentees. 

22,317 
7,126 

""The  number  of  days  of  absence  for  each  cause  was  not  obtained  for  a  few 
children,  which  accounts  for  the  difference  between  the  number  of  children  in 
tables  C,  D,  F  and  G  and  that  in  the  other  tables. 

tTotals  include  all  for  whom  home  tenure  could  not  be  ascertained. 


108 


Child  Welfare  in  Alabama 
TABLE    D 


NUMBER  OF  DAYS  THE  GIRLS  SHOULD  HAVE  ATTENDED  UP  TO  DATE 
OF  VISITS  TO  schools;  number  of  days  PRESENT  AND 
ABSENT,  BY  ABSENTEE  GROUPS  AND  HOME  TENURE  OF  PARENTS 


Number  of  Days  the  Children 

Number 

of 

Girls 

Should 
have 
attend- 
ed 

Were  ab- 
sent on 
account 
of  liv- 
ing in 
other 
districts 

Were 
present 

Were 
absent 

Owners'  Girls 

Migrants 

127 
1,382 

15,219 
165,916 

7,479 

6,359 
125,582 

1,381 

Non-Migrants 

40,334 

Farmworkers 

277 
271 
689 
145 

33,561 
32,414 
82,261 
17,680 

23,394 
23,504 
66,337 
12,347 

10,167 

Houseworkers 

8,910 

Other  classified  absentees 
Non-classified  absentees. 

15,924 
5,333 

Tenants'  Girls 

Migrants 

385 
693 

47,863 
83,899 

28,194 

15,729 
56,196 

3,940 

Non-Migrants 

27,703 

Farmworkers 

219 

115 

296 

63 

27,018 
14,001 
35,112 

7,768 

17,406 

10,048 

23,971 

4,771 

9,612 

Houseworkers 

3,953 

Other  classified  absentees 
Non-classified  absentees. 

11,141 
2,997 

Total* 

Migrants 

533 
2,118 

65,661 
254,861 

37,027 

22,962 
185,311 

5,672 

Non-Migrants 

69,550 

Farmworkers 

498 

400 

1,006 

214 

60,832 

47,968 

119,965 

26,096 

40,988 
34,746 
92,061 
17,516 

19,844 

Houseworkers 

13,222 

Other  classified  absentees 
Non-classified  absentees. 

27,904 
8,580 

*  Totals  include  all  for  whom  home  tenure  could  not  be  ascertained. 


Rural  School  Attendance 
TABLE    E 


109 


NUMBER  AND  PER  CENT  OF  NON-MIGRANT  CHILDREN  PRESENT  FEWER 
THAN  60  DAYS,  60  TO  79  DAYS,  AND  80  DAYS  OR  OVER 


Number  of 
Children  Present 

To- 
tal* 

Per  cent 

1-59 

Days 

60-79 
Days 

80  and 
over 

1-59 
Days 

60-79 

Days 

80  and 

over 

Owners'  Children 

378 

502 

1,892 

2,772 

13.6 

18.1 

68.3 

Farmworkers 

Houseworkers 

Other  Classified  Absentees 
Non-Classified  Absentees . 

168 
37 

113 
60 

281 
43 

139 
39 

626 
192 
914 
160 

1,075 
272 

1,166 
259 

15.6 

13.6 

9.7 

23.2 

26.2 
15.8 
11.9 
15.0 

58.2 
70.6 
78.4 
61.8 

Tenants'  Children 

345 

331 

713 

1,389 

24.8 

23.8 

51.4 

Farmworkers 

178 
16 

118 
33 

186 
27 
94 
24 

315 
82 

261 
55 

679 
125 
473 
112 

26.2 
12.8 
25.0 
29.5 

27.4 
21.6 
19.8 
21.4 

46.4 

Houseworkers 

Other  Classified  Absentees 
Non-Classified  Absentees . 

65.6 
55.2 
49.1 

All  Children 

750 

847 

2,676 

4,273 

17.6 

19.8 

62.6 

*  These  figures  do  not  include  the  four  schools  which  had  been  open  fewer 
than  80  days  prior  to  the  investigators'  visits. 


Table  E  shows  that  17.6  per  cent  of  the  children  attended 
fewer  than  60  days  up  to  the  day  of  visit,  19.8  per  cent  attended 
60  to  79  days,  and  62.6  per  cent  attended  80  days  or  over.  Were 
all  those  who  attended  fewer  than  80  days  exempted?  It  is  true 
that  the  15-year-olds  and  all  children  who  have  completed  the 
seventh  grade  are  not  required  to  go  to  school.  In  our  study  are 
included  all  such  children,  but  the  total  of  these  is  only  8.1  per  cent, 
and  if  all  of  them  had  attended  fewer  than  80  days  there  would  still 
be  a  large  jjer  cent,  not  accounted  for.  It  is  also  true  that  our  infor- 
mation was  not  obtained  at  the  very  end  of  the  tenn  and  therefore 
children  who  attended  60  to  79  days  still  had  some  time  to  make 


110  Child  Welfare  in  Alabama 

up  the  period  required.  But  even  if  they  had  done  so,  they  would 
not  have  complied  with  the  law,  as  the  attendance  was  not  con- 
tinuous, the  law  specifying:  ".  .  .  the  period  of  compulsory 
attendance  for  each  school  shall  commence  at  the  beginning  of 
the  school,  unless  otherwise  ordered  by  the  county  board  of  educa- 
tion or  by  the  board  of  education  of  an  incorporated  city  or  town." 
Distance  from  the  school  building,  physical  and  mental  incapacity, 
and  poverty  are  legitimate  reasons  for  non-attendance,  but  even 
if  we  grant  that  many  of  these  absences  were  legitimate  it  cannot 
be  safely  asserted  that  all  were  so,  the  total  per  cent  being  too 
high. 

Making  fiuther  comparisons  we  find  that  68.3  per  cent  of 
owners'  children  and  only  51.4  per  cent  of  tenants'  children  at- 
tended 80  days  and  over.  The  farmworkers  attended  less  than 
the  other  classified  absentees,  either  owners'  or  tenants'  children. 
Whether  they  were  obeying  the  law  or  not,  such  prolonged  and 
frequent  absence  leaves  but  meager  opportunity  for  education. 
These  absences  in  many  cases  are  chronic,  as  the  following  illus- 
trations will  show. 

In  one  school  (in  session  for  139  days)  four  children,  9,  10, 
12  and  13  years  old,  were  in  the  first  grade  and  were  not  to  be  pro- 
moted. Each  had  been  absent  70  days  for  farmwork,  three  having 
been  absent  four  days  and  one  for  five  days  in  addition  owing  to 
illness,  which  made  their  attendance  65  and  64  days  respectively. 
The  school  was  to  be  in  session  three  to  four  weeks  longer,  but  in 
all  probability  they  would  not  attend,  farmwork  being  so  iirgent 
in  springtime. 

In  another  school  (in  session  for  116  days)  a  15-year-old  child 
in  the  fourth  grade,  who  would  not  be  promoted,  was  present  33 
days  and  absent  83  days  for  farmwork.  Another  child  of  14  years, 
in  the  third  grade,  was  to  be  promoted,  but  had  been  away  51  days 
for  farmwork.     The  school  was  to  close  in  two  or  three  weeks. 

Again,  a  child  of  14  in  the  second  grade  who  would  not  be 
promoted  was  absent  85  days  for  farmwork  and  present  in  school 
only  10  days.  Another,  13  years  old,  in  the  fourth  grade,  and 
not  to  be  promoted,  was  absent  for  farmwork  58  days,  and  present 
37  days.  Two  children  of  15  were  in  the  fifth  grade  and  would  not 
be  promoted,  one  having  been  absent  43  days  and  the  other  52 
days  for  farmwork. 


Rural  School  Attendance  111 

In  another  school  which  had  been  in  session  for  77  days,  a 
child  of  15  years  in  the  second  grade  who  was  not  to  be  promoted 
came  to  school  only  two  days  and  was  absent  for  farmwork  the 
rest  of  the  time. 

In  tables  F  and  G  the  total  number  of  days  lost  for  each  cause 
is  given.  From  these  we  see  that  the  four  leading  causes  of  absence 
are  farmwork,  housework,  illness  and  indifference.  When  we 
compute  the  average  number  of  days  of  absence  for  each  child, 
for  each  of  these  four  causes,  we  find  that  each  farm  working  owners' 
boy  missed  on  the  average  nearly  40  days  out  of  an  average  of 
120  days  that  he  should  have  attended,  27  on  account  of  farm- 
work,  6  because  of  illness,  3  because  of  indifference  and  the  rest 
for  miscellaneous  reasons.  Farm  working  tenants'  boys  lost  49 
days,  34  for  farmwork,  6  for  illness  and  4  for  indifference. 

The  other  classified  boy  absentees  belonging  to  home-owning 
families,  lost  on  the  average  25  days  as  compared  with  43  for  the 
tenants'  boys.  This  is  less  than  the  average  number  of  days  lost 
by  farmworkers  for  all  causes,  but  the  loss  on  account  of  illness 
and  indifference  is  very  much  greater:  owners'  boys  having  lost 
14  days  for  illness  and  7  days  because  of  indifference;  tenants' 
boys  15  days  for  illness  and  17  days  because  of  indifference.  Farm- 
working  owners'  girls  missed  37  days — 21  days  for  farmwork,  8 
for  illness  and  3  on  account  of  indifference.  Farm  working  tenants' 
girls  lost  44  days — 27  for  farmwork,  8  for  illness  and  3  on  account 
of  indifference.     Among  the  houseworkers,   the  owners'  girls  lost 

33  days — 16  (about  half  of  the  total)  for  housework,  8  for  illness  and 
3  because  of  indifference.     Tenants'  girls  of  the  same  group  lost 

34  days — 18  for  housework,  10  for  illness  and  2  because  of  indiffer- 
ence. The  other  classified  girl  absentees  of  home-owning  parents, 
lost  on  the  average  23  days — 14  for  illness  and  5  because  of  in- 
difference. The  tenants'  girls  lost  38  days — 19  for  illness  and  11 
on  account  of  indifference. 


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114 


Child  Welfare  in  Alabama 


In  tables  H  and  I  we  have  the  age  and  grade  distribution  of 
non-migrant  owners'  and  tenants'  children;  also  the  per  cent  of 
children  of  each  age.  Of  the  2,843  owners'  children  14.3  per  cent 
were  8  years  old  and  there  is  a  gradual  falling  off  for  each  sub- 
sequent age  except  in  the  case  of  those  12  years  old.  Whether 
there  really  were  more  12-year-old  children,  whether  the  rise  was 
due  to  some  error,  or  whether  those  children  enrolled  more  regularly 
than  the  rest,  it  is  impossible  to  determine.  Besides  there  is  only 
a  small  gradual  decrease  in  the  per  cent  of  children  of  successive 
ages,  but  when  we  come  to  the  14  and  15-year-olds,  we  find  that 
the  decrease  is  rather  marked.  The  fall  is  from  11.6  per  cent  to 
7  per  cent,  which  is  undoubtedly  due  chiefly  to  the  fact  that  com- 
pulsory attendance  ceases  at  the  fifteenth  year. 


TABLE  H 

DISTRIBUTION   AMONG   SCHOOL   GRADES   ACCORDING   TO   AGE, 
owners'    CHILDREN 


Grade 

To- 
tal 

1 
Per 

Age 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

Cent. 

8  yrs. . 

184 

139 

60 

17 

5 

406 

14.3 

9  "  .. 

86 

106 
79 

120 

63 

23 

4 

■. 

402 

14.1 

10  "  . . 

53 

91 

104 

65 

12 

1 

395 

13.9 

11  ".. 

19 

33 

57 

108 

85 

34 

5 

341 

12.0 

12  •*  . . 

11 

27 

63 

95 

107 

89 

28 

4 

1 

425 

14.9 

13  "  . . 

12 

11 

25 

60 

79 

83 

62 

12 

2 

346 

12.2 

14  "  . . 

2 

9 

19 

37 

64 

81 

77 

33 

7 

329 

11.6 

15  "  . . 

2 

3 

8 

17 

32 

55 

65 

16 

11 

199 

7.0 

Total. . . 

369 

407 

443 

501 

450 

358 

228 

65 

21 

2,843 

100.0 

Grade  not  stated  for  one  8-year-old  child  included  in  total. 

One  14-year-old  child,  included  among  the  7  in  ninth  grade  is  in  tenth  grade. 

Two  15-year-old  children,  included  among  the  11  in  ninth  grade,  are  in  tenth  grade. 


Rural  School  Attendance  115 

Under  the  law  the  329  14-year-old  owners'  children  and  153 
tenants'  children  are  to  be  allowed  to  drop  out  of  school  as  soon  as 
they  become  15  years  old.  Among  the  owners'  children  there  were 
23.4  per  cent  in  the  seventh  grade;  nearly  two-thirds  were  below 
the  seventh,  of  whom  24.6  per  cent  were  in  the  sixth  grade,  19.4 
per  cent  in  the  fifth,  11.3  per  cent  in  the  fourth,  5.8  per  cent  in  the 
third,  2.7  per  cent  in  the  second  and  0.6  per  cent  in  the  first  grade. 
For  the  tenants'  children  as  usual,  the  case  is  even  worse;  over 
four-fifths  are  below  the  seventh  grade,  of  whom  17  per  cent  are  in 
the  sixth  grade,  21.6  per  cent  in  the  fifth,  19.6  per  cent  in  the  fourth 
and  7.8  per  cent  in  each  of  the  three  lowest  grades. 

In  the  same  tables  we  have  the  grade  distribution.  The  figures 
between  the  heavy  lines  represent  the  ntmiber  of  children  enrolled 
in  the  grades  they  normally  belong  in  according  to  their  age.  Three 
grades  are  allotted  to  each  age.  Those  to  the  right  of  the 
heavy  lines  are  ahead  of  the  normal  grades  and  those  to  the  left 
are  below  normal  grade  or  "retarded."  This  rather  generous 
method  of  classification  was  adopted  because  the  compulsory 
attendance  age  begins  at  8,  yet  it  is  quite  normal  for  children  to 
enter  school  at  the  age  of  6.  A  child  enrolling  in  the  first  grade 
normally  at  6  years  and  advancing  regularly  from  class  to  class,  is 
in  the  third  grade  at  8.  In  the  same  way,  a  normal  child  beginning 
at  7  would  be  in  the  second  grade  at  the  age  of  8,  and  one  who  enters 
at  the  age  of  8  must  necessarily  be  only  in  the  first  grade  and  there- 
fore considered  normal,  because  the  law  allows  him  to  stay  out  of 
school  until  that  age. 

We  find  that  among  non -migrant  tenants'  children  there  were 
many  more  retarded  than  among  owners'  children,  but  as  the  age 
distribution  is  not  the  same,  it  was  considered  fair  to  compare 
only  the  children  of  the  same  ages.  In  the  nature  of  things  a  group 
of  older  children  has  a  higher  per  cent  retarded  than  a  group  of 
younger  children,  because  of  their  longer  attendance  at  school  and 
consequently  greater  opportunity  to  fall  behind.  The  difference 
in  age  distribution  is  even  more  striking  when  the  farmworkers, 
with  7.5  per  cent  8-year-old  and  9.9  per  cent  15-year-old  children 
are  compared  with  the  "other  classified  absentees"  of  whom  the 
per  cent  of  8-year-old  children  is  20.8  and  of  15-year-old  children 
is  only  3.2. 


116  Child  Welfare  in  Alabama 

TABLE   I 

DISTRIBUTION   AMONG    SCHOOL    GRADES   ACCORDING    TO    AGE. 
tenants'    CHILDREN 


Grade 

To- 
tal 

Per 

Age 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

Cent. 

8  yrs... 

160 

52 

15 

5 

... 

... 

.... 

.  •  •  •  f 

232 

16.4 

9  "  .. 

108 

52 

44 

14 

4 

... 

... 

222 

15.7 

10  "  . . 

38 

60 

48 

33 

23 

1 

•'- 

... 

203 

14.3 

11  "  .. 

28 

37 

37 

43 

23 

9 

2 

... 

179 

12.6 

12  •  . . 

22 

31 

43 

40 

32 

18 

5 

... 

191 

13.5 

13  "  .. 

16 

23 

25 

32 

27 

24 

8 

2 

1 

158 

11.2 

14  "  . . 

12 

12 

12 

30 

33 

26 

21 

5 

2 

153 

10.8 

15  "  . . 

4 

4 

7 

13 

20 

12 

9 

7 

1 

78 

5.5 

Total. . . 

388 

271 

232 

210 

162 

90 

45 

14 

4 

1,417 

100.0 

Grade  not  stated  for  one  15-year-old  child  included  in  total. 
Age  not  stated  for  one  child  in  third  grade  included  in  total. 

Table  J  which  is  based  on  the  data  of  tables  H  and  I,  gives 
the  total  number  of  children  of  each  age  and  the  per  cent  ahead, 
normal,  or  retarded  1,  2,  3,  and  4  years  or  more.  Among  those 
8  years  old  5.4  per  cent  of  owners'  children  and  only  2.2  per  cent 
of  tenants'  children  were  ahead.  Taking  the  succeeding  years, 
we  find  that  for  each  age,  with  the  exception  of  13  years  where  it 
was  the  same,  the  per  cent  of  owners'  children  ahead  of  normal 
grade  is  higher  than  that  of  tenants'.  On  the  other  hand,  taking 
the  per  cent  of  all  owners'  children  retarded,  regardless  of  the 
nvmiber  of  years  retarded,  we  find  it  is  lower  for  each  age  than 
that  of  tenants'.  The  per  cent  of  normally  enrolled  children  among 
those  8  years  old  is  smaller  for  owners'  children  because  all  children 
of  that  age  are  necessarily  either  normal  or  ahead,  and  as  there  is  a 


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118 


Child  Welfare  in  Alabama 


greater  per  cent  of  children  ahead  among  owners'  children,  there 
must  be  a  smaller  per  cent  normal.  In  the  other  ages,  9  to  15 
years  inclusive,  we  find  there  was  a  larger  per  cent  normal  among 
the  owners'  children  than  among  the  tenants'  children. 


TABLE  K 

TOTAL    NUMBER    OF     MIGRANT    TENANTS'    CHILDREN    AND    PER     CENT 
AHEAD,    NORMAL   AND   RETARDED 


Num- 
ber OF 
Chil- 
dren 

Per  Cent 

Age 

Ahead 

Normal 

Retarded 

lyr. 

2  yrs. 

3  yrs. 

4  yrs. 
or  more 

8  yrs 

136 

1.5 

98.5 

9     "   

131 

.7 

52.7 

46.6 

10     "   

107 

.9 

41.2 

30.8 

27.1 

11     "   

100 

33.0 

35.0 

17.0 

15.0 

12     "  

108 

.9 

27.8 

19.4 

23.2 

19.4 

9.3 

13     "   

89 

.... 

14.6 

18.0 

25.8 

22.5 

19.1 

14     "  

89 

.... 

12.3 

18.0 

29.2 

18.0 

22.5 

15     "  

49 

6.1 

16.3 

22.5 

14.3 

40.8 

Table  K  gives  the  same  information  for  migrant  tenants' 
children.  No  table  is  given  for  the  275  migrant  owners'  children, 
because  when  distributed  by  ages  there  are  fewer  than  50  in  each, 
which  makes  it  worthless  for  percentage  comparisons.  The  migrant 
tenants'  children  are  even  worse  off  than  the  non-migrant  tenants' 
children,  which  leads  one  to  the  conclusion  that  because  of  the 
absence  from  school  which  it  entails,  change  of  residence  during  a 
school  term  contributes  substantially  to  retardation. 

In  the  earlier  tables  we  considered  the  large  groups  of  tenants' 
children,  owners'  children  and  children  who  moved  into  the  dis- 
tricts visited  after  the  opening  of  school  or  moved  out  before  the 


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Rural  School  Attendance  121 

investigators'  visits.  No  comparisons  were  made  between  the  per 
cent  normal  and  the  per  cent  retarded  of  the  two  smaller  groups 
of  farmworkers  and  "other  classified  absentees"  within  the  groups 
of  tenants'  or  owners'  children.  What  does  a  comparison  of  these 
groups  reveal?  Table  L  gives  the  per  cent  normal  and  retarded 
of  owners'  children  who  were  farmworkers  and  "other  classified 
absentees."  We  find  that  of  the  "other  classified  absentees"  5.6 
per  cent  were  8-year-old  children  who  were  ahead  of  their  normal 
grades  and  that  of  the  farmworkers,  the  corresponding  per  cent 
was  3.7.  The  same  tendency  recurs  for  most  of  the  ages.  The 
per  cent  retarded  regardless  of  the  nimiber  of  years  retarded,  is 
higher  for  the  farmworkers  of  every  age.  The  number  of  "other 
classified  absentees"  of  15  years  is  too  small  for  computing  per- 
centages; nearly  all  faiTn workers  of  that  age  are  retarded.  Table 
M  gives  the  same  for  tenants'  children;  exactly  the  same  tendency 
is  noted  where  figures  are  large  enough  to  warrant  computing  per- 
centages— indeed,  they  are  even  more  retarded  when  the  figures  for 
each  age  are  compared  respectively  with  those  of  owners'  children. 

Seventy-eight  children  had  not  missed  any  time  up  to  the  date 
the  schools  were  visited.  Of  these,  65  (22  boys  and  43  girls)  were 
owners'  children,  being  2  per  cent  of  all  owners'  children;  13  (4 
boys  and  9  girls)  were  the  children  of  tenants,  being  0.5  per  cent 
of  all  tenants'  children.  Sixty-two  of  the  total  were  in  normal 
grades;  3  were  ahead  of  their  normal  grades;  9  were  retarded 
one  year,  3  two  years  and  a  14-year-old  boy,  three  years.  These 
figures  are  too  small  to  be  of  any  value  for  comparison,  especially 
when  distributed  among  eight  consecutive  ages,  but  on  the  whole 
one  sees  that  these  daily  attendants  were  less  retarded  than  any 
of  the  other  groups. 

Table  N  gives  the  number  and  per  cent  of  children  who  were 
to  be  promoted  at  the  end  of  the  term.  As  already  stated  the 
information  was  obtained  near  the  end  of  the  school  term  and 
therefore  in  all  probability  few  changes  were  made  when  the  time 
came  for  promotion.  Only  two-thirds  of  all  owners'  children  and 
three-fifths  of  the  tenants'  were  to  be  promoted.  Again  the  per 
cent  of  farmworkers  is  lower  than  that  of  "other  classified  absentees," 
for  both  owners'  and  tenants'  children.  For  the  owners'  children, 
the  "daily  attendants"  (i.  e.,  children  who  did  not  miss  a  day  up 
to  the  time  of  the  visit),  show  a  higher  per  cent  of  promotion  than 


122 


Child  Welfare  in  Alabama 


any  other  group;  it  is  natural  that  such  should  be  the  case,  as  they 
were  able  to  cover  the  work  better  by  attending  more  regularly. 
The  13  tenants'  children  were  all  to  be  promoted,  but  it  would 
be  an  overstatement  to  call  it  100  per  cent  because  in  all  probability 
it  is  a  mere  coincidence.  The  significance  of  migration  is  brought 
out  in  this  table;  only  37.7  per  cent  of  the  known  cases  of  migrants' 
children  were  to  be  promoted. 


TABLE   N 

NUMBER  AND   PER   CENT   OF   PROMOTIONS   AND   FAILURES   FOR   SCHOOL 

YEAR   ENDED   JUNE   30,    1918.       (bASED    ON   4,875 

KNOWN    cases) 


Number 

Total 

Per  Cent 

Yes 

No 

Pro- 
moted 

Not  Pro- 
moted 

NON-MlGRANXS 

2,621 

1,415 

4,036 

64.9 

35  1 

Owner's  Children 

1,781 

848 

2,629 

67.7 

32  3 

Farmworkers 

Houseworkers 

Other  Classified  Absentees. 
Daily  Attendants 

636 

175 

915 

55 

451 
101 

287 
9 

1,087 

276 

1,202 

64 

58.5 
63.4 
76.1 
84.6 

41.5 
36.6 
23.9 
13.8 

Tenants'  Children 

777 

539 

1,316 

59.0 

41.0 

Farmworkers 

Houseworkers 

Other  Classified  Absentees . 
Daily  Attendants 

383 
80 

301 
13 

302 

45 

192 

685 
125 
493 
13* 

55.9 
64.0 
61.1 

44.1 
36.0 
38.9 

Migrants 

316 

523 

839 

37.7 

62.3 

Owners'  children 

Tenants'  children 

102 

198 

116 

382 

218 
580 

46.8 
34.1 

53.2 
65.9 

*  Number  too  small  for  computing  percentages. 

What  conclusions  can  be  drawn  from  all  these  data?  We  have 
seen  that  the  children  of  tenants  were  absent  a  greater  number  of 
days  than  the  children  of  home-owners;    that  children  who  did 


Rural  School  Attendance  123 

farm  work  missed  more  time  than  the  "other  classified  absentees" 
and  that  farm  working  tenants'  children  were  absent  more  than 
farm  working  owners'  children.  It  was  also  found  that  in  the  dis- 
tribution of  the  pupils  among  the  school  grades  according  to  age 
the  children  of  tenants  were  more  retarded  than  the  children  of 
home  owners;  that  the  farmworkers  were  more  retarded  than  the 
other  classified  absentees,  and  in  this  respect  also  the  farmworking 
tenants'  children  made  a  worse  showing  than  the  farmworking 
owners'  children.  It  has  been  observed  also  that  among  tenants' 
children  the  per  cent  promoted  is  lower  than  among  owners'  chil- 
dren and  that  the  per  cent  for  farmworking  tenants'  boys  was  lower 
than  for  farmworking  owners'  bo3''S.  The  children  of  migrants 
were  more  retarded  than  the  children  of  non-migrants.  There 
were  four  times  as  many  owners'  children  as  tenants'  children  who 
did  not  miss  a  day  during  the  school  term.  The  daily  attendants 
were  less  retarded  and  more  successful  in  passing  to  higher  grades 
than  any  other  group  of  children. 

The  law  allows  children  to  drop  out  of  school  as  soon  as  they 
become  15  years  old,  irrespective  of  the  grade  they  are  in,  and  full 
advantage  of  this  fact  is  taken,  as  the  figures  show,  the  number  of 
15-year-old  children  being  much  smaller  than  that  of  the  14-year 
or  13-year-olds.  Not  quite  two-thirds  of  the  14-year-old  owners' 
children  and  more  than  four-fifths  of  the  tenants'  children  of  the 
same  age  were  enrolled  in  grades  below  the  seventh,  so  when  they 
leave  school  their  education  is  but  meager.  An  additional  year 
would  enable  many  to  complete  their  course  and  for  this  reason  the 
maximum  limit  for  compulsory  attendance  should  be  raised  so  as 
to  include  the  fifteenth  year.  Indeed,  the  law  at  present  may  be 
construed  to  require  attendance  up  to  the  sixteenth  birthday. 

In  preparing  the  tables  the  several  classifications  were  adopted 
with  a  view  to  shutting  out  other  contributing  factors,  but  no  claim 
is  made  that  this  has  been  accomplished  and  that  only  farmwork 
among  farmworkers  and  tenancy  and  migration  of  parents  among 
tenants'  children  were  the  sole  reasons  for  retardation.  And  yet 
it  is  not  assimiing  too  much  to  say  that  tenancy  and  migration 
of  parents,  and  farmwork  of  children  are  leading  factors  in  non- 
promotion  in  the  communities  visited.  Discussion  as  to  how  to 
remedy  the  tenancy  and  migration  problems  would  hardly  be  in 
place  in  this  report.     But  to  try  to  find  out  what  can  be  expected, 


124  Child  Welfare  in  Alabama 

in  the  future,  of  the  enforcement  of  the  compulsory  attendance 
law,  and  whether  the  law  as  it  stands  now  can  reduce  the  per  cent 
of  retarded  children  is  of  vital  importance,  and  demands  immediate 
attention. 

The  law  requires  only  80  days  of  attendance  for  each  year. 
The  course  of  study  is  prepared  for  a  seven  or  eight  months'  school 
term,  but  the  length  of  the  term  varies  according  to  the  local  interest 
and  support  from  foiu"  to  eight  months.  What  must  happen  under 
these  conditions  in  a  short-term  school?  Can  even  the  children 
who  attend  regularly  be  expected  in  four  or  five  months  to  cover 
work  prescribed  for  seven  or  eight  months?  Under  exceptionally 
favorable  circumstances  they  may  do  so,  but  are  short  term  rural 
schools  operating  under  exceptionally  favorable  circumstances? 
Can  their  teachers,  who  are  in  most  cases  below  the  average  in 
training  and  ability  be  expected  to  cover  the  ground  in  such  a  short 
period?  The  result  is  that  at  the  end  of  the  term,  instead  of  being 
promoted,  children  are  assigned  to  the  same  grades  for  the  following 
year  and  must  stay  there  until  the  required  work  has  been  done. 
The  usual  annual  change  of  teachers  helps  to  prolong  the  time 
required  for  getting  through  the  course  and  it  very  frequently 
takes  one  and  one-half  or  even  two  years  to  complete  one  year's 
work.  This  naturally  retards  a  child  even  when  both  he  and  his 
parents  do  everything  in  their  power  to  insure  regularity  of 
attendance. 

Now  let  us  see  what  the  four  months'  compulsory  attendance 
law  can  accomplish  in  an  eight-months'  school.  Each  child  has  to 
begin  when  school  opens;  the  more  regular  the  child  is,  the  sooner 
he  can  leave  school,  and  where  the  attendance  officer  is  conscien- 
tious, school  may  not  be  missed  for  the  first  four  months.  After 
the  provisions  of  the  law  have  been  complied  with,  the  child  who 
attended  merely  because  he  was  obliged  to  do  so,  drops  out  and 
the  rest  of  the  children  go  on  with  the  work.  The  following  year 
those  who  were  present  only  the  required  period  in  the  preceding 
term  naturally  have  to  go  back  to  the  same  grade  and  repeat  the 
work.  They  may  never  have  an  opportimity  to  get  ahead.  The 
only  remedy  for  this,  and  indeed  the  first  step  that  must  be  made 
in  any  improvement  in  the  conditions  outlined  above  would  be  to 
extend  the  required  period  for  attendance  under  the  compulsory 
education  law  so  that  it  will  cover  the  entire  school  term. 


CHILD  LABOR  LAW  ADMINISTRATION 
Florence  I.  Taylor 

National  Child  Labor  Committee 

The  present  child  labor  law  was  passed  in  1915  but  as  the  14- 
year  limit  did  not  go  into  effect  until  September,  1916,  the  enforce- 
ment of  it  as  it  now  stands  dates  only  from  that  time.  The  law  is 
inclusive  in  its  provisions,  applying  to  all  occupations  except  domestic 
service  and  agriculture,  with  no  exemptions  except  business  offices 
and  mercantile  establisliments  in  cities  or  towns  under  25,000  when 
schools  are  not  in  session.  It  requires  work  permits  of  children 
between  14  and  IG,  issued  by  the  school  superintendents;  prohibits 
work  by  children  under  16  between  6  p.  m.  and  6  a.  m.;  has  a  16- 
year  limit  for  dangerous  and  injurious  occupations;  and  a  12- 
year  limit  for  boys  and  an  18-year  limit  for  girls  engaged  in  street 
trading  in  the  larger  cities  of  the  state;  and  a  state  official  is  charged 
with  its  enforcement. 

Practically  no  attention  was  given  in  this  study  to  the  establish- 
ments to  which  the  federal  child  labor  law,  recently  declared  invalid, 
applied,  as  the  object  was  to  obtain  infonnation  about  the  state 
law  and  state  methods  of  enforcement.  This  confined  the  investi- 
gation mainly  to  children  employed  in  mercantile  establishments, 
offices,  drug  stores,  laundries,  and  similar  establishments  to  which 
the  federal  law  did  not  apply. 

The  Supreme  Court  decision  that  the  federal  law  was  uncon- 
stitutional leaves  only  the  state  law  to  regulate  mills,  canneries 
and  manufacturing  establishments.  It  has  the  same  standards  as 
the  federal  law  except  that  it  has  an  11-hour  day,  60-hour  week, 
instead  of  an  8-hour  day,  48-hour  week  for  children  under  16.  The 
methods  of  enforcing  the  law  in  such  establishments,  however, 
will  not  be  materially  affected  as  the  State  Factory  Inspector  acted 
as  federal  inspector  for  Alabama  and  state  work  permits  were 
accepted  by  the  federal  authorities  in  lieu  of  federal  certificates 
of  age.     The  same  procedure  will  be  followed  by  the  state  depart- 

125 


126  Child  Welfare  in  Alabama 

ment  in  enforcing  the  state  instead  of  the  federal  law  in  mills  and 
factories  and  the  recommendations  made  in  this  report,  based  on 
a  study  of  the  department's  work  in  enforcing  the  state  law  as 
it  applies  to  mercantile  establishments,  offices,  etc.,  will  apply- 
equally  to  its  work  in  the  cotton  mills  as  the  enforcement  machinery 
is  similar. 

State  Inspection  Department 

Under  the  terms  of  the  law,  the  State  Prison  Inspector,  who  is 
appointed  by  the  State  Board  of  Health,  and  his  assistants,  are 
authorized  to  inspect  the  places  where  minors  are  employed.  For 
the  purpose  of  administering  this  law,  he  is  designated  as  State 
Factory  Inspector  and  his  assistants  as  deputy  factory  inspectors. 
The  State  Inspector  has  two  deputy  inspectors  and  a  chief  clerk 
and  this  force  of  four  is  responsible  for  the  inspection  of  all  the 
jails,  almshouses,  and  child  employing  establishments  in  the  state. 
The  department  is  not  even  supplied  with  a  stenographer,  hence 
part  of  the  time  one  of  the  two  deputies  has  to  serve  as  such.  This 
deputy  is  assigned  to  inspection  of  all  the  stores,  offices,  laundries, 
etc.,  in  the  state,  and  the  other  covers  the  cotton  mills.  The  time 
that  the  State  Inspector  and  the  chief  clerk  have  for  inspection  is 
given  mainly  to  the  prison  and  almshouse  work  although  the  In- 
spector is  able  to  make  some  child  labor  inspections. 

Work  Permit  Blanks 

On©  of  the  strong  points  of  the  law  is  the  fact  that  its  enforce- 
ment is  centralized  in  the  hands  of  the  State  Factory  Inspector 
who  is  authorized  not  only  to  inspect  establishments  where  children 
are  employed  but  also  to  prepare  the  blank  forms  used  in  the  issu- 
ance of  work  permits.  The  law  requires  that  children  between  14 
and  16  must  have  work  permits  (designated  as  "employment  cer- 
tificates") issued  by  superintendents  of  schools  before  they  may  be 
employed.  Permits  are  issued  upon  receipt  of  a  school  record  show- 
ing attendance  at  school  60  days  in  the  preceding  year,  and  docu- 
mentary proof  of  age,  or  if  this  can  not  be  obtained,  upon  a  certificate 
of  physical  age  signed  by  a  public  health  or  public  school  physician 
supported  by  the  parent's  affidavit.  In  many  states  the  State  De- 
partment of  Education  is  charged  with  the  duty  of  preparing  and 


Child  Labor  Law  Administration  127 

supplying  to  the  issuing  officers  the  blank  forms  necessary  for 
issuing  permits  but  as  in  Alabama  this  Department  is  not  familiar 
with  the  technical  difficulties  involved  in  the  enforcement  of  a 
child  labor  law,  it  is  better  that  the  inspection  department  have  the 
authority  to  prepare  them.  Whenever  it  is  found  that  they  need 
to  be  revised,  it  is  a  simple  matter  for  the  inspection  department 
to  do  so  without  having  to  persuade  another  department  that  it  is 
necessary.  This  system  also  enables  the  inspection  department 
to  supervise  the  work  of  the  school  superintendents  who  issue  the 
permits.  In  the  enforcement  of  a  child  labor  law,  the  issuance  of 
work  permits  is  just  as  important  as  the  work  of  inspection.  When 
blanks  are  issued  by  the  inspection  department  their  use  can  be 
carefully  explained  to  the  issuing  officers  and  when  inspectors  find 
permits  which  have  been  illegally  issued  they  can  take  the  matter 
up  with  the  issuing  officer. 

It  was  unfortunate  that  in  centralizing  the  enforcement  of  the 
law  to  this  extent,  the  centralization  was  not  carried  further  by 
giving  the  State  Inspector  power  to  revoke  permits  which  had  been 
illegally  issued.  While  there  has  always  been  a  cordial  spirit  of 
co-operation  between  the  inspectors  and  the  issuing  officers,  and  issu- 
ing officers  have  gladly  revoked  any  permits  that  an  inspector  found 
to  have  been  issued  without  proper  evidence  of  age  or  schooling, 
nevertheless  the  State  Inspector  should  be  authorized  by  law  to 
supervise  the  work  of  the  issuing  officers  and  to  revoke  permits 
not  properly  issued.  Unless  the  department  issuing  blanks  has  the 
power  to  insure  their  right  use  there  can  not  be  uniformity  of  method 
throughout  the  state. 

The  forms  which  the  child  labor  law  requires  are  a  school  record 
blank  to  be  filled  out  by  the  teacher  showing  that  the  child  attended 
school  for  60  days  during  the  year  immediately  preceding  his  appli- 
cation for  a  work  permit;  one  for  the  physician's  certificate  of  age; 
one  for  the  parent's  affidavit  of  age  which  must  accompany  the 
physician's  certificate;  an  eight  weeks'  schooling  certificate  show- 
ing that  a  child  under  16  years  employed  in  mill  or  factory  has 
attended  school  8  weeks  during  the  year;  a  school  record  blank  for 
newsboys  showing  that  the  child  is  a  regular  school  attendant; 
and  the  work  permit. 

The  requirement  that  a  child  must  have  attended  school  60 
days  of  the  year  "immediately  preceding  the  date  on  which  the 


128  Child  Welfare  in  Alabama 

certificate  is  issued"  is  the  cause  of  considerable  confusion.  In 
spite  of  the  fact  that  it  is  explained  on  the  back  of  the  school  record 
blank  that  the  year  "immediately  preceding"  does  not  mean  the 
calendar  year  or  the  scholastic  year  but  that  if  a  permit  is  issued  on 
March  30,  the  child  must  have  attended  school  60  days  between 
then  and  March  30  of  the  previous  year,  issuing  officers  are  fre- 
quently uncertain  as  to  what  is  meant  by  this  clause.  This  may 
be  partly  due  to  the  examples  used  on  the  back  of  the  blank.  The 
first  one  is  January  1  to  January  1,  which  immediately  makes  the 
issuing  officer  think  in  terms  of  the  calendar  year.  The  next  one  is 
September  1  to  September  1,  which  brings  to  mind  the  scholastic 
year.  If  other  examples  had  been  used,  such  as  December  10  to 
December  10,  or  April  21  to  April  21,  the  point  might  be  clearer 
to  the  issuing  officers. 

The  best  way  to  clear  up  the  difficulty,  would  be  more  frequent 
conferences  between  inspectors  and  issuing  officers.  But  there  are 
95  issuing  officers  in  the  state  and  only  two  inspectors.  Consequently 
inspectors  do  not  get  around  very  often  and  the  inspection  Depart- 
ment has  to  rely  largely  upon  letters  and  printed  matter  to  explain 
the  law  or  changes  in  the  requirements  to  issuing  officers.  This  is 
very  unsatisfactory  as  few  issuing  officers  take  the  time  to  familiar- 
ize themselves  with  the  law  and  pay  little  attention  to  communi- 
cations about  it  which  come  in  circular  or  printed  form  through  the 
mail.  Moreover,  if  they  do  not  understand  such  communications, 
they  rarely  write  to  the  State  Inspector  for  information  but  wait 
until  an  inspector  reaches  their  city.  If  the  inspector  does  not  see 
the  issuing  officer  w^hen  in  the  city,  the  difficulties  are  never  cleared 
up.  By  taking  time  to  see  the  issuing  officers  frequently  the  inspec- 
tors eventually  save  themselves  work  because  they  will  not  find 
on  file  in  factories  and  other  child  employing  establishments  certifi- 
cates which  have  been  illegally  issued  by  an  officer  who  has  mis- 
understood some  of  the  requirements  of  the  law. 

In  addition  to  the  vagueness  and  inadequacy  of  the  school 
requirement,  it  is  in  conflict  with  the  compulsory  education  law 
which  requires  a  child  between  8  and  15  years  to  attend  school  80 
days  during  the  scholastic  year.  Issuing  officers  are  at  a  loss  to 
know  whether  to  issue  permits  on  60  days'  attendance  during  the 
previous  12  months  as  the  child  labor  law  requires  or  whether  to 
require  80  days'  attendance  during  the  scholastic  year  in  accordance 


Child  Labor  Law  Administration  129 

with  the  education  law.  But  since  a  school  requirement  of  60  days 
is  far  from  sufficient,  the  difficulties  connected  with  this  provision 
could  be  eliminated  by  raising  the  educational  requirement  for  a 
work  permit  to  the  completion  of  the  4th  grade,  as  is  recommended 
later  on  in  this  report. 

In  the  absence  of  any  acceptable  documentary  proof  of  age,  a 
certificate  of  age  signed  by  a  public  health  or  public  school  physician 
is  accepted  if  accompanied  by  the  affidavit  of  the  parent.  Neither 
the  physician's  certificate  nor  the  parent's  affidavit  is  acceptable 
as  proof  of  age  without  the  other.  Although  on  the  back  of  the 
affidavit  blank  there  is  a  statement  to  the  effect  that  the  affidavit 
must  be  accompanied  by  the  physician's  certificate,  a  similar  state- 
ment does  not  appear  on  the  latter  blank.  Hence  permits  are 
frequently  issued  on  the  physician's  certificate  alone.  The  inspec- 
tion Department  has  prepared  a  digest  of  the  requirements  of  the 
child  labor  law  for  the  use  of  issuing  officers  which  explains  this  point 
very  carefully  yet  one  of  the  most  intelligent  issuing  officers  told 
the  investigator  he  thought  he  might  as  well  discard  his  affidavit 
blanks  as  they  were  not  required  any  more.  He  had  a  copy  of  the 
digest  but  had  not  read  it  carefully  enough  to  know  that  both  physi- 
cian's certificate  and  parent's  affidavit  are  required.  He  was  per- 
haps not  entirely  to  blame  for  this  for  on  the  work  pennit  blank 
there  is  a  line  stating  what  kind  of  evidence  may  be  accepted  and 
this  specifies  "physician's  certificates  of  age"  without  stating  that 
the  affidavit  must  accompany  it.  The  lack  of  understanding  of  this 
provision  is  another  argument  for  closer  supervision  of  the  work  of  the 
issuing  officers  by  the  inspectors. 

If  a  work  permit  is  issued  upon  some  documentary  proof  of  age 
which  can  not  be  filed  with  the  other  blanks  at  the  office  of  the  issu- 
ing officer  there  is  no  record  of  the  evidence  of  age  that  was  accepted. 
The  family  Bible  may  have  been  brought,  or  a  life  insurance  policy 
or  some  other  evidence  which  could  not  be  left  with  the  issuing 
officer.  It  is  impossible  under  such  circumstances  for  the  State  In- 
spector to  find  out  without  looking  over  the  permits  in  the  possession 
of  employers  whether  illegal  evidence  of  age  has  been  accepted.  In 
order  to  give  him  some  means  of  checking  up  the  work  of  the  issuing 
officers  it  would  be  advisable  to  have  the  work  permit  issued  in 
duplicate,  one  copy  for  the  employer,  and  the  other  for  filing  in  the 
office  of  the  State  Inspector. 


130  Child  Welfare  in  Alabama 

Work  of  the  Inspectors 

Except  for  the  work  of  the  cotton  mill  inspector,  child  labor 
inspection  has  been  largely  confined  to  the  three  cities  of  Birming- 
ham, Montgomery  and  Mobile.  Some  work  has  also  been  done  in 
Anniston  and  Selma.  As  Birmingham  is  a  city  of  almost  200,000 
and  Montgomery  and  Mobile  have  respectively  about  50,000  and 
60,000  inhabitants,  it  can  readily  be  imagined  what  an  almost 
hopeless  task  confronts  the  one  inspector  who  has  in  addition  to  these 
cities  all  the  smaller  cities  in  the  state.  The  department  has  been 
at  a  loss  from  the  beginning  to  know  whether  to  concentrate  its 
small  force  in  an  endeavor  to  make  some  impression  on  the  large 
cities  or  whether  to  scatter  its  efforts  in  the  hope  of  reaching  more 
places.  Until  recently  the  former  policy  was  followed  but  now  that 
the  department  feels  that  some  impression  has  been  made  on  these, 
it  has  begun  to  turn  its  attention  to  the  smaller  cities. 

It  would  be  useless  to  give  any  large  amount  of  space  to  num- 
ber and  nature  of  violations  found,  for  with  such  an  entirely  inade- 
quate force  of  inspectors  violations  are  to  be  expected.  What  it  is 
important  to  know,  is  whether  that  force  has  been  used  in  a  way  to 
get  the  best  possible  results.  To  do  efficient  work,  an  inspection 
department  that  is  short-handed  is  dependent  upon  three  things: 

(1)  permit  issuing  officers  who  imderstand  what  they  are  doing; 

(2)  co-operation  from  other  organizations;   and  (3)  publicity. 

(1)  As  was  suggested  in  the  discussion  of  work  permit  blanks, 
issuing  officers  should  be  seen  far  more  frequently  than  is  now  the 
case.  There  is  doubt  in  the  minds  of  many  issuing  officers,  for  in- 
stance, whether  the  child  labor  law  applies  outside  of  school  hours 
and  on  Saturday.  A  number  are  under  the  impression  that  a  child 
between  14  and  16  years  who  works  only  on  Saturday  does  not  need 
a  work  permit.  In  fact,  one  issuing  officer  got  his  own  son  a  job 
in  a  grocery  store  on  Saturdays,  apparently  in  complete  ignorance 
of  the  fact  that  the  law  makes  no  distinction  between  employment 
during  and  after  school  hours  but  prohibits  the  employment  of 
children  under  14  years  and  requires  a  work  permit  for  children 
between  14  and  16  years  employed  at  any  time. 

Hardly  an  issuing  officer  was  interviewed  who  did  not  have  some 
question  about  the  application  or  interpretation  of  the  law.  One 
officer  in  a  small  city  wished  to  know  whether  there  was  any  exemp- 
tion operative  in  the  summer  vacation.    The  law  specifically  states 


Child  Labor  Law  Administration  131 

that  children  over  12  years  of  age  may  be  employed  in  mercantile 
establishments  and  offices  in  towns  of  25,000  or  fewer  inhabitants 
and  although  the  inspection  department  has  preferred  not  to  call 
attention  to  this  clause,  it  serves  as  an  example  of  what  issuing 
officers  are  unable  to  find  out  for  themselves  with  the  text  of  the  law 
at  hand.  Almost  without  exception,  issuing  officers  are  interested 
and  wish  to  do  the  work  correctly,  but  except  in  the  three  large  cities, 
they  have  rarely  received  more  than  one  or  two  visits  from  an  in- 
spector and  are  still  uncertain  of  the  proper  method  of  issuing 
permits. 

(2)  The  difficulty  the  inspectors  work  under  in  trying  to  run 
down  violations  in  the  short  time  they  can  spend  in  each  city  is  greatly 
enhanced  by  the  lack  of  other  agencies  with  which  they  can  co- 
operate. In  many  states  the  inspection  department  receives  valu- 
able assistance  from  the  school  officials  who  report  children  found 
illegally  employed  by  the  truancy  officers.  In  Alabama  the  period 
of  compulsory  school  attendance  lasts  for  four  months  only.  In 
Birmingham  the  largest  city  in  the  state,  no  compulsory  attendance 
officers  were  appointed  to  enforce  the  law  last  year  (the  first  it  was  in 
operation)  because  there  was  no  room  for  additional  pupils  in  the 
existing  schools  and  no  money  to  build  any  more.  A  similar  situation 
was  found  in  one  or  two  other  cities.  An  11 -year  old  boy  was  found 
on  the  streets  in  school  hours  in  one  city  who  said  he  had  tried  to 
get  into  four  schools  and  there  was  no  room  for  him.  In  cities  where 
an  attempt  had  been  made  to  enforce  the  law,  it  had  been  impossible 
to  get  attendance  officers  of  the  right  type  for  the  salary  that  the  law 
provides — $3.00  a  day,  or  $60.00  a  month  for  four  months.  Some 
superintendents  found  that  the  only  way  to  solve  the  difficulty  was 
to  persuade  some  salaried  official  to  do  the  truancy  work  in  addition 
to  his  regular  work.  The  chief  of  police  served  in  one  city  and  in 
another  the  superintendent  was  considering  the  appointment  of  the 
tax  collector  and  sanitary  officer  as  truancy  officers.  Under  such 
conditions  inspectors  can  get  little  or  no  assistance  from  the  at- 
tendance officers  in  locating  violations.  Nor  can  much  help  be  ex- 
pected from  the  probation  officers.  No  probation  officers  have  been 
appointed  outside  the  large  cities  and  in  these  they  have  all  they 
can  do  in  taking  care  of  their  own  work.  It  is  probable  that  more 
information  could  be  obtained  from  these  probation  officers  than 
has  been  in  the  past  if  they  were  advised  of  the  importance  of  report- 


132  Child  Welfare  in  Alabama 

ing  to  the  inspection  department  all  cases  of  violation  that  come  to 
their  knowledge.  This  was  suggested  by  the  inspector  to  the  Mobile 
probation  officer  who  appreciated  the  importance  of  close  correla- 
tion in  the  work  of  child  labor  inspectors  and  probation  officers  and 
readily  consented  to  report  all  violations  detected. 

With  little  co-operation  to  be  had  from  public  institutions 
like  the  schools  and  the  juvenile  courts,  the  only  other  agencies 
that  might  be  called  upon  are  private  organizations  such  as  relief 
agencies  and  women's  clubs.  But,  taking  the  state  as  a  whole,  there 
are  no  relief  agencies.  An  isolated  charity  organization  society 
can  be  found  here  and  there,  and  a  few  city  welfare  workers  but 
there  are  no  agencies  well  enough  equipped  and  organized  to  have 
much  information  about  employed  children.  The  only  organization 
that  might  be  of  use  is  the  State  Federation  of  Women's  Clubs.  In 
Birmingham  a  local  child  labor  committee  has  been  formed,  the 
members  of  which  make  it  their  business  to  keep  themselves  in- 
formed about  violations  in  the  city.  The  inspector  meets  this  group, 
is  supplied  with  a  list  of  places  where  violations  have  been  found, 
and  in  this  way  loses  no  time  in  locating  the  most  flagrant  cases.  In 
no  other  city  is  there  a  group  to  which  the  inspector  can  turn  for 
information  about  conditions  but  must  start  in  blindly  to  make  a 
round  of  all  the  establishments.  If  the  women's  clubs  would  or- 
ganize a  local  committee  in  every  city  to  co-operate  with  the  in- 
spector, it  is  likely  that  very  much  more  effective  work  could  be 
done.  In  some  cities  visited  by  the  investigator  where  a  child  labor 
inspection  had  never  been  made,  merchants  did  not  know  there 
was  a  child  labor  law  on  the  statute  books  that  applied  to  them 
and  enquired  whether  it  was  a  "new  law."  They  were  in  entire 
ignorance  of  the  fact  that  it  had  been  passed  three  years  ago.  Under 
such  conditions,  the  first  inspection  can  be  merely  educational.  If 
there  had  been  local  child  labor  committees  in  these  cities  they  could 
have  been  made  responsible  for  informing  the  employers  of  the 
existence  of  the  law.  Copies  of  the  digest  could  have  been  placed 
in  the  hands  of  the  employers  who  could  have  been  held  responsible 
from  that  time  on.  The  digest  was  sent  by  the  inspection  depart- 
ment to  employers  in  the  large  cities  and  to  the  cotton  mills,  but 
in  the  places  most  seldom  reached  there  was  no  supplementary 
machinery  for  informing  employers  of  the  existence  of  the  law. 
Such  a  local  committee  could  also  be  useful  in  providing  relief  for 


Child  Labor  Law  Administration  153 

needy  cases.  There  is  no  mothers'  pension  law  in  Alabama  and  in- 
spectors are  frequently  discouraged  and  tempted  to  ignore  some 
cases  of  violation  because  there  is  no  agency  to  which  they  can  refer 
children  who  can  not  legally  be  employed  but  whose  families  are  in 
need  of  financial  assistance.  In  Birmingham  the  local  committee 
handles  such  cases.  If  a  child  applies  to  the  issuing  officer  for  a 
work  permit  and  can  not  qualify  for  one  but  is  actually  in  need  of 
the  money,  or  the  inspector  finds  a  child  illegally  employed  who  needs 
help,  the  case  can  be  referred  to  the  committee  which  will  pay  the 
family  the  amount  the  child  could  earn  until  he  is  able  to  qualify 
for  a  permit.  In  Mobile  County  there  are  two  welfare  workers  who 
enforce  the  compulsory  school  law  and  who  have  funds  supplied  by 
the  Child  Welfare  Bureau  of  Mobile  to  take  care  of  the  needy  cases. 
In  the  city  of  Mobile  there  is  at  present  no  one  to  whom  such  cases 
can  be  referred.  A  mothers'  pension  law  is  badly  needed,  but  if  this 
can  not  be  secured,  local  child  labor  committees  should  be  organized 
to   supply   financial   aid. 

(3)  The  last  resource  of  a  small  enforcing  department  is  pub- 
licit}^  and  the  best  way  to  give  publicity  to  a  law  is  by  prosecuting 
employers  who  violate  it.  Until  recently  there  had  been  no  prose- 
cutions since  the  present  inspector  went  into  office  in  the  spring  of 
1917.  Inspectors  went  their  rounds  again  and  again  and  while  con- 
ditions improved  very  materially  there  were  employers  who  were 
repeatedly  found  violating  the  law,  and  there  were  others  who  had 
not  been  made  aware  of  its  existence  through  the  publicity  which 
prosecutions  give.  A  few  prosecutions  in  every  city  are  worth  sev- 
eral tours  of  inspection  in  acquainting  all  employers  with  the  law 
and  making  them  feel  that  it  is  a  serious  matter  to  violate  it. 

It  has  been  the  custom  of  the  State  Inspector  to  require  the 
deputy  inspectors  to  return  to  the  main  office  to  report  violations. 
Then  if  it  is  decided  to  prosecute  any  employers,  the  deputy  re- 
turns, swears  out  warrants,  and  proceeds  against  them.  In  this 
way  much  valuable  time  is  lost  and  the  prosecution  is  not  nearly 
as  effective  as  if  the  deputy  inspector  had  sworn  out  a  warrant  as 
soon  as  the  violation  was  fotmd  and  had  brought  proceedings  at 
once.  Cases  have  been  prosecuted  recently  in  Binningham  and 
Montgomery  and  if  this  policy  is  extended  to  the  smaller  cities  the 
work  of  the  inspectors  will  be  greatly  simplified  and  they  will  be 
able  to  cover  more  cities  than  has  been  possible  in  the  past.     In 


134  Child  Welfare  in  Alabama 

addition  to  the  publicity  resulting  from  prosecutions,  the  depart- 
ment could  also  assist  itself  in  making  the  law  known  throughout 
the  state  by  giving  the  newspapers  occasional  information  about 
its  activities.  The  people  at  large  know  nothing  of  the  law  except 
that  they  have  a  vague  idea  there  is  one  applying  to  cotton  mills. 
They  have  not  the  least  idea  that  it  applies  to  all  work  except  do- 
mestic service  and  agriculture  and  that  there  is  a  department  charged 
with  its  enforcement. 

None  of  these  methods  for  securing  wider  enforcement  of  the 
law  are  adequate  substitutes  for  more  inspectors.  Without  a  very 
much  larger  force,  any  work  done  is  carried  on  under  disadvantages 
that  make  the  prospects  for  success  almost  hopeless. 

Conflicts  with  Compulsory  School  Law 

The  work  of  the  inspectors  is  still  further  complicated  by  the 
fact  that  the  compulsory  education  law  was  di^wn  up  without  any 
regard  to  the  child  labor  law  and  conflicts  with  it  in  several  respects. 
The  education  law  requires  a  child  to  attend  school  until  he  is  15 
years  old  but  permits  exemptions  in  cases  of  extreme  poverty,  and 
for  various  other  reasons.  In  Mobile  about  17  of  these  exemption 
certificates  were  issued  before  it  was  found  that  children  were  using 
them  to  obtain  employment.  Under  the  child  labor  law  no  child 
under  14  years  can  work  at  any  time,  but  the  employer  naturally 
thinks  that  if  the  child  has  been  excused  from  school  by  the  school 
officials  he  can  employ  him.  The  inspector  had  to  remove  all  these 
children  and  supply  the  school  officials  with  a  rubber  stamp  for 
marking  all  exemption  certificates  with  a  notice  that  they  could 
not  be  used  in  lieu  of  work  permits.  The  demand  for  exemption  cer- 
tificates ceased  after  that.  These  exemptions  to  the  compulsory 
attendance  law  ought  to  be  abolished,  for  so  long  as  a  child  can  not 
go  to  work  under  14  years,  there  is  no  object  in  exempting  him 
from  school  attendance. 

Confusion  is  also  caused  by  the  discrepancy  in  the  age  limits 
fixed  by  the  education  and  child  labor  laws.  Under  the  education 
law  a  child  must  go  to  school  until  he  is  15  but  under  the  child  labor 
law  he  can  go  to  work  at  14.  This  difficulty  could  be  cleared  up  by 
making  16  years  the  maximum  age  limit  for  compulsory  school 
attendance  and  by  amending  the  child  labor  law  so  as  to  prohibit 
a  child  under  16  years  working  during  school  hours.     As  the  law 


Child  Labor  Law  Administration  135 

now  stands,  the  employer  is  informed  by  the  child  labor  inspector 
that  he  must  employ  no  children  under  14.  The  child  labor  in- 
spector is  followed  by  the  attendance  officer  who  removes  all  children 
under  15.  Naturally  the  employer  is  annoyed  and  is  inclined  to 
think  that  neither  officer  knows  what  the  law  is. 

A  third  source  of  confusion  is  to  be  found  in  the  duplicate 
system  of  permits  called  for  by  the  child  labor  and  compulsory 
education  laws.  Under  the  child  labor  law  an  employed  child  be- 
tween 14  and  16  years  must  have  a  work  permit  issued  by  the  super- 
intendent of  schools.  The  compulsory  education  law  requires  a 
child  between  8  and  15  years  who  is  employed  during  school  hours 
to  have  a  permit  from  the  board  of  education.  Since  no  child  can 
be  employed  under  14,  and  since  one  between  14  and  16  must  have 
a  permit,  there  is  no  need  for  the  other  permit  called  for  in  the 
compulsory  education  law  and  the  clause  requiring  it  should  be 
stricken  out. 

Issuing  Officers 

Except  in  Birmingham,  work  permits  are  issued  by  school 
officials.  In  Birmingham  the  secretary  of  the  Boys'  Club  has  been 
authorized  to  issue  them  in  the  name  of  the  school  superintendent 
to  whom  he  reports  once  a  month.  The  advantages  of  having  per- 
mits issued  by  the  Boys'  Club  are  that  the  Club  is  centrally  located 
and  open  all  the  year.  The  disadvantages  are  the  changing  per- 
sonnel and  the  fact  that  such  work  does  not  logically  belong  to  a 
Boys'  Club.  Some  secretaries  of  the  club  are  interested  in  the  work 
and  realise  the  importance  of  doing  it  well  but  others  consider  that 
it  takes  time  that  should  be  given  to  regular  club  activities  and 
would  not  object  to  having  the  work  taken  away  and  put  back 
into  the  hands  of  the  school  superintendent.  At  the  present 
time,  however,  there  is  probably  no  more  satisfactory  way  of 
handling  the  work.  A  Bureau  of  Compulsory  Attendance  and 
Child  Labor  which  would  take  the  school  census,  enforce  the  edu- 
cation law,  and  issue  the  work  permits  might  be  a  good  solution 
of  the  difficulty  but  the  city  superintendent  of  schools  says  that  no 
funds  would  be  available  for  such  a  bureau  now. 

The  question  of  the  accessibility  of  issuing  officers  is  a  very 
serious  one.  Cotton  mills  are  usually  found  outside  the  city  limits 
and  transportation  is  so  poor  that  it  is  frequently  impossible  to  ask 


136  Child  Welfare  in  Alabama 

the  children  to  come  into  the  city  to  secure  their  permits  from  the 
city  or  county  superintendent.  Consequently  the  principals  of 
schools  in  the  vicinity  of  the  mills  have  been  designated  as  issuing 
officers  and  44  of  the  95  issuing  officers  are  in  mill  schools.  Where 
the  work  in  one  district  is  divided  up  in  this  way  among  several 
persons,  no  officer  issues  enough  permits  to  become  really  familiar 
with  the  work.  An  officer  who  issues  about  one  permit  in  two 
months  for  a  near-by  mill  said  she  had  to  look  up  the  law  on  every 
occasion  and  was  never  quite  sure  whether  she  was  doing  it  right. 
The  superintendent  of  schools  in  that  city,  while  perhaps  a  mile 
further  from  the  mill,  understands  the  law  and  could  issue  the  per- 
mits without  difficulty.  He  issues  them  in  the  summer  by  requiring 
the  principals  to  leave  with  him  the  school  records  of  all  eligible 
children.  Of  the  44  mill  schools  where  there  are  issuing  officers, 
only  one  is  supported  entirely  by  the  mill  and  as  this  is  very  much 
below  standard,  it  is  not  likely  that  the  principal  will  be  continued 
as  an  issuing  officer  very  much  longer.  But  in  that  same  city  the 
superintendent  of  schools  has  office  hours  only  one  hour  a  day, 
four  days  in  the  week,  on  two  days  of  the  week  in  the  morning  and  on 
two  in  the  afternoon.  Children  go  there  time  and  again  for  their 
permits  and  can  not  find  him.  If  he  is  to  be  the  only  issuing  officer 
in  the  city  it  will  be  necessary  for  him  to  give  more  time  to  the 
work. 

Although  the  work  of  issuing  permits  is  hampered  by  the  fact 
that  school  officials  are  not  always  on  hand  during  the  summer 
vacation,  there  is  no  department  other  than  the  Department  of 
Education  which  has  as  many  and  as  accessible  representatives. 
One  superintendent  was  contemplating  the  appointment  of  the  city 
clerk  as  issuing  officer  but  the  duties  of  a  city  clerk  are  numerous, 
and  as  he  has  not  the  same  interest  in  a  child  of  school  age  that  the 
school  superintendent  has,  it  is  probable  that  he  would  not  issue 
permits  with  the  same  care.  If  he  were  interested,  such  an  arrange- 
ment might  solve  the  difficulty  for  that  particular  city.  But  in 
general  the  issuing  of  permits  must  remain  in  the  hands  of  the 
school  superintendents  for  the  reason  that  there  is  no  one  else  to 
handle  them,  and  the  summer  vacation  difficulty  will'  have  to  be 
met  by  having  the  issuing  officers  appoint  some  one  to  act  for  them 
when  they  are  away.  This  can  be  done  if  the  example  of  the  school 
superintendent   who   required   the   school   records   of   all   children 


Child  Labor  Law  Administration  137 

eligible  for  work  permits  to  be  turned  over  to  him  at  the  beginning  of 
the  summer  vacation,  is  followed.  It  would  be  advisable,  also,  to  re- 
duce the  number  of  issuing  officers  wherever  it  would  be  possible 
for  the  children  to  go  to  one  officer. 

Superintendents  in  small  cities  that  have  no  cotton  mills  and  have 
never  been  inspected,  have  never  issued  a  single  permit.  In  cities 
where  there  are  cotton  mills  they  have  usually  issued  pennits  for 
cotton  mills  only. 

Proof  of  Age 

The  common  difficulty  of  all  issuing  officers  is  to  find  adequate 
proof  of  age.  Birth  records  are  difficult  to  secure  because  although 
the  state  has  a  birth  registration  law,  the  cards  were  kept  by  local 
officials  previous  to  1908  and  were  destroyed.  Since  then  the  cards 
have  been  filed  with  the  State  Registrar  of  Vital  Statistics  and  have 
been  preserv^ed.  Although  the  law  requires  that  the  name  of  the 
child  be  given  on  the  birth  record,  and  space  is  provided  for  it  in 
the  blank,  it  is  not  always  filled  in  and  shows  merely  that  a  "son" 
or  "daughter"  was  bom  on  such  and  such  a  date.  This  is  useless 
for  the  enforcement  of  the  child  labor  law  for  it  is  impossible  to 
know  whether  the  child  who  wants  to  go  to  work  is  the  child  whose 
birth  was  recorded  in  the  certificate.  Since  birth  certificates  can 
almost  never  be  obtained,  and  practically  none  of  the  families  are 
foreign  bom  so  that  passports  or  certificates  of  arrival  are  not  to 
be  had,  the  only  acceptable  proof  remaining  is  a  Bible  record,  a  life 
insurance  policy,  or  a  physician's  certificate  of  physical  age  sup- 
ported by  the  parent's  affidavit.  A  Bible  record  that  has  not  been 
tampered  with  is  considered  by  many  issuing  officers  the  most  reli- 
able proof  of  age  but  most  of  the  officers  find  that  they  have  to  fall 
back  very  frequently  on  the  physician's  certificates  of  physical  age. 
This  is  not  very  satisfactory  as  the  standards  prescribed  in  it  are 
low,  due  to  the  fact  they  are  the  federal  standards  of  height  and 
weight  which  had  to  be  made  low  enough  to  be  a  fair  standard 
for  foreign  children  of  small  stature. 

The  only  satisfactory  solution  of  the  proof  of  age  difficulty  is 
an  adequate  birth  registration  law  properly  administered.  While 
the  records  are  being  kept  in  good  shape  now,  the  state  should  be 
organized  in  smaller  registration  districts  so  that  each  city,  each 
incorporated  town,  and  each  township  would  have  its  local  registrar. 


138  Child  Welfare  in  Alabama 

The  present  organization  with  county  health  officers  acting  as  reg- 
istrars, and  municipal  health  officers  where  there  are  any,  gives  the 
local  registrars  too  large  a  territory  to  cover  adequately. 

Violations 

Since  few  establishments  to  which  the  federal  law  applied  were 
visited  for  the  purposes  of  this  study,  nothing  can  be  said  about  the 
enforcement  of  the  law  there.  In  the  three  large  cities  of  Birming- 
ham, Montgomery  and  Mobile,  conditions  in  local  child-employing 
establishments  have  been  greatly  improved  by  enforcement.  Or- 
dinarily about  2  permits  a  week  are  issued  in  Birmingham  but 
after  a  visit  from  the  inspector  25  or  30  are  issued.  In  the  smaller 
cities  which  the  inspectors  have  never  visited  or  have  visited  only 
infrequently,  children  are  employed  in  much  the  same  way  as  they 
were  before  the  law  went  into  effect.  Where  the  compulsory  school 
attendance  law  is  enforced  they  are  kept  in  school  4  months  of  the 
year  but  after  school  hours  and  during  the  other  8  months  the 
employment  of  children  in  stores,  offices,  theatres,  hotels,  and  drug 
stores  is  not  interfered  with.  One  hotel  uses  men  on  the  elevators 
during  the  day  but  in  the  evening  three  boys  go  on  duty,  two  of 
whom  are  15  and  the  other  11,  and  these  boys  work  until  2  in  the 
morning.  Drug  stores  are  also  frequent  offenders  in  the  matter  of 
night  work.  Children  under  16  work  frequently  until  10  or  11 
o'clock  although  the  law  forbids  the  employment  of  a  child  under 
16  years  after  7  p.  m.  The  boys  usually  come  on  after  school  and 
work  through  the  afternoon  and  evening  rush.  Another  common 
occupation  in  which  children  engage  is  taking  tickets  at  the  "movie" 
theatres.  In  one  city  a  boy  of  9  and  another  of  12  were  found  doing 
this,  although  the  law  forbids  the  employment  of  children  under 
16  in  theatres.  The  9-year-old  boy  worked  until  9  p.  m.,  and  the 
older  one  until  10.30.  They  were  both  going  to  school  and  the 
younger  boy  said  he  got  up  early  in  the  morning  to  do  his  lessons, 
while  the  12-year-old  did  his  after  he  left  the  theatre  at  10.30.  The 
department  stores  employ  children  as  inside  messengers  and  for 
delivery  work.  Delivery  service  almost  invariably  means  work 
after  6  p.  m.  as  the  stores  are  open  tmtil  6  and  want  to  have  goods 
delivered  after  that.  Most  store  managers  said  if  they  could  not 
use  boys  under  16  years  after  6  o'clock  they  would  have  no  use 
for  them.    Other  children  are  taken  on  for  Saturday  only,  and  work 


Child  Labor  Law  Administration  139 

until  the  store  closes  Saturday  night.  A  boy  of  13  works  as  a  messen- 
ger in  a  department  store  until  9.30  every  Saturday  night.  Children 
are  also  used  in  restaurants  until  very  late.  One  boy  of  15  was 
employed  in  the  kitchen  until  12  o'clock  every  night  and  an  attend- 
ance officer  reported  a  boy  of  school  age  who  was  working  all  night 
in  a  restaurant.  Fourteen-year-old  boys  were  found  working  for  the 
messenger  companies  until  10  at  night  in  most  of  the  small  cities,  and 
13  and  14-year-old  girls  work  in  5-and-lO-cent  stores  until  10  or  11 
Saturday  nights.  Some  Western  Union  managers  and  some  5-and- 
10-cent  store  managers  had  received  information  about  the  law  from 
district  managers  but  this  knowledge  did  not  seem  to  be  general. 

Such  conditions  as  these  were  found  to  exist  before  the  enact- 
ment of  the  state  law  and  it  was  upon  such  findings  that  the  law 
was  drawn  to  apply  to  all  occupations.  It  is  hoped,  now  that  the 
law  is  fairly  well  understood  in  the  large  cities,  that  some  attention 
can  be  given  to  the  smaller  cities  where  the  law  is  still  entirely 
unknown. 

Prosecutions 

Five  Montgomery  employers  were  recently  prosecuted  for 
violation  of  the  child  labor  law,  four  of  whom  pleaded  guilty  and 
paid  the  minimum  fine  and  costs.  The  other  defendant  asked 
that  the  case  be  tried  and  the  judge  handed  down  the  opinion  that 
if  an  employer  hires  a  boy  under  16  in  the  belief  that  he  is  over  16 
he  is  not  guilty.  It  is  of  course  a  very  simple  matter  for  an  employer 
to  believe  a  boy  is  over  16.  The  boy  and  various  members  of  his 
family  say  that  he  is,  and  the  court  holds  that  this  is  evidence  of 
the  good  intent  of  the  employer  and  that  therefore  he  is  not  guilty 
of  violating  the  law.  Under  this  decision  employers  all  over  the 
state  could  employ  children  on  the  mere  statement  of  some  mem- 
ber of  the  family  that  the  child  is  16.  Such  evidence  of  age  is  not 
accepted  in  issuing  work  permits  to  children  between  14  and  16; 
documentary  proof  of  age  must  be  produced,  or  if  this  is  not  avail- 
able, a  physician  must  certify  to  the  child's  age.  There  is  no  rea- 
son why  an  employer  should  not  be  required  to  secure  equally  reli- 
able evidence  before  employing  a  child  who  represents  himself  to 
be  over  16  and  if  he  does  not  secure  it,  he  should  be  held  guilty.  In 
a  similar  case  in  Wisconsin  the  judge  gave  it  as  his  opinion  that 
"the  employer  is  charged  with  the  duty  of  ascertaining,  at  his  peril, 


140  Child  Welfare  in  Alabama 

the  age  of  a  minor  and  of  employing  persons  of  lawful  age  only. 
False  statements  of  the  minor  or  his  parent  as  to  the  age  of  the  minor, 
is  no  defense  for  the  employer." 

Under  the  present  child  labor  law  if  an  inspector  believes  a  child 
to  be  under  16  he  can  require  the  employer  to  produce  satisfactory 
proof  of  age  that  the  child  is  16.  If  the  employer  can  not  produce 
such  evidence  he  must  dismiss  the  child.  This  clause  should  be 
amended  to  give  the  inspector  authority  to  prosecute  an  employer 
if  a  child  in  his  employ  is  proved  to  be  under  16.  This  would  force 
the  employer  to  secure  a  reliable  evidence  of  age  before  employing 
a  child  if  he  wished  to  protect  himself  from  prosecution.  Such  a 
clause  should  be  supplemented  by  one  requiring  issuing  officers  to 
give  age  certificates  to  children  claiming  to  be  over  16  years  of  age 
when  employers  request  them. 

Street  Trades 

In  addition  to  the  enforcement  of  the  law  in  all  child-employ- 
ing establishments  the  department  of  child  labor  inspection  is  also 
charged  with  the  enforcement  of  the  street  trading  section  pro- 
hibiting boys  under  12  and  girls  under  18  from  selling  papers,  etc., 
on  the  streets  in  cities  of  25,000  or  more.  The  department  is  supposed 
to  receive  assistance  from  attendance  and  probation  officers  in  the 
enforcement  of  this  section,  but  as  already  pointed  out,  attendance 
officers  have  never  been  appointed  in  some  cities  and  where  they  have 
been  appointed,  work  only  for  four  months.  The  department  has 
done  very  good  work  in  securing  the  co-operation  of  the  newspapers 
themselves  and  fairly  good  results  have  been  obtained  in  this  way. 
But  street  trading  is  the  most  difficult  kind  of  work  to  regulate  and 
little  permanent  impression  can  be  made  upon  it  without  the  assist- 
ance of  local  officers.  The  children  are  constantly  changing,  they  get 
their  papers  from  dealers  and  from  each  other  as  well  as  from  the 
newspaper  office,  and  they  have  no  definite  place  of  employment. 
The  circulation  manager  of  the  newspaper  is  supposed  to  see  that 
no  papers  are  given  to  a  boy  who  does  not  wear  a  seller's  badge 
obtained  from  the  superintendent  of  schools  but  he  can  not  be  held 
responsible  for  the  boys  who  get  their  papers  from  dealers  or  from 
other  boys.  More  co-operation  might  be  secured  from  the  teachers, 
some  of  whom  do  not  know  the  law  and  fail  to  realize  that  children 
can  sell  papers  only  outside  of  school  hours.    In  Montgomery  a  boy 


Child  Labor  Law  Administration  141 

who  was  selling  extras  at  noon  was  asked  why  he  was  not  in  school. 
"When  there's  an  extra  out  they  call  up  the  principal  from  the 
newspaper  office  and  she  lets  us  out  at  noon,"  was  his  reply.  If  the 
inspector  met  the  teachers  occasionally^  and  explained  the  law  to 
them,  better  obser\'ance  might  be  secured.  One  provision  in  the 
street  trades  section  which  renders  its  enforcement  somewhat  in- 
effective is  that  which  gives  only  the  juvenile  court  power  to  revoke 
a  boy's  badge.  The  juvenile  court  calendar  is  very  frequently  too 
crowded  to  enable  the  judge  to  get  around  to  cases  of  violation  of 
the  street  trading  law.  If  the  school  officer  who  issued  the  badge 
or  the  child  labor  inspector  had  the  power  to  revoke  it  if  the 
child  violated  the  law,  enforcement  would  be  speedier  and  more 
effective. 

In  towns  where  there  are  army  cantonments,  conditions  were 
found  to  be  particularly  acute.  In  Montgomery  where  the  street 
trading  law  appHes,  since  it  is  a  city  of  more  than  25,000,  the  depart- 
ment had  the  situation  fairly  well  in  hand.  But  in  Anniston  and 
Florence,  both  towns  of  fewer  than  25,000  inhabitants  in  normal 
times,  the  population  has  more  than  doubled  since  the  location  there 
of  cantonments  or  industrial  plants  and  the  presence  of  thousands 
of  outsiders  has  created  a  demand  for  out-of-town  papers  which  never 
existed  before.  In  Anniston,  boys  of  8  and  10  get  up  at  4  in  the 
morning,  get  their  papers  at  the  station  and  go  out  to  the  camp  with 
them.  They  come  back  to  town  between  8  and  9,  and  many  do  not 
go  to  school  but  remain  on  the  streets  selling  during  school  hours. 
The  inspection  department  drafted  a  municipal  ordinance  to  take 
care  of  these  children  and  it  is  to  be  hoped  that  the  city  will  act 
favorably  upon  it  for  the  state  law  can  not  be  made  to  apply  without 
amendment.  In  Florence  the  situation  is  almost  as  acute,  due  to 
the  enormous  number  of  men  who  had  been  brought  to  the  town  to 
work  on  the  government  nitrate  plant.  As  the  industrial  develop- 
ment going  on  there  is  of  permanent  character  and  will  greatly  in- 
crease the  population  of  Florence  and  the  neighboring  cities  of 
Sheffield  and  Tuscumbia,  it  would  be  advisable  either  to  secure 
municipal  ordinances  for  these  cities  or  to  extend  the  state  law  to 
apply  to  all  cities  and  towns  of  5,000  or  more.  With  the  present 
force  of  inspectors  it  would  be  useless  to  extend  the  state  law.  If 
the  force  can  not  be  increased,  municipal  ordinances  would  be 
better. 


142  Child  Welfare  in  Alabama 

War  Problems  in  Other  Occupations. 

The  employment  of  children  in  other  occupations  has  also  been 
greatly  increased  by  the  presence  of  cantonments  and  large  industrial 
plants.  The  mercantile  and  food  stores,  drug  stores,  restaurants, 
and  movies  can  hardly  keep  pace  with  the  demands  made  upon  them. 
In  addition  to  the  unprecedented  demand  for  service,  the  industrial 
plants  have  created  an  acute  labor  situation.  They  have  drained 
the  local  labor  market  of  all  men  and  older  boys  and  the  merchants 
have  no  labor  supply  but  the  younger  children.  One  Western  Union 
man  complained  that  he  could  not  keep  any  boy  because  the  men 
from  the  industrial  plant  came  to  his  ofifice  and  persuaded  him  to  go 
to  the  plant  by  offering  him  high  wages.  The  child  labor  law  applies 
to  these  occupations,  however,  and  the  under-age  children  could  be 
eliminated  in  a  few  inspections.  Anniston  has  received  consider- 
able attention  and  the  situation  is  vastly  improved.  On  the  first 
inspection,  a  13-year-old  boy  was  found  who  delivered  for  a  market 
imtil  2  a.  m.  Sunday.  His  employer  never  heard  of  the  law  and 
"just  let  the  boy  work  until  he  got  through."  With  an  occasional 
visit  from  the  inspector  and  a  few  prosecutions,  it  is  safe  to  say  that 
such  conditions  would  never  return. 

Hours  of  Labor 

Before  the  Supreme  Court's  decision  that  the  federal  child 
labor  law  was  unconstitutional,  it  seemed  that  it  would  be  a  simple 
matter  to  have  the  state  law  amended  with  regard  to  the  hours  of 
labor.  The  present  11 -hour  day  and  60-hour  week,  was  written  into 
the  law  by  the  cotton  mill  interests  before  the  federal  law  was  passed. 
When  the  federal  law  was  in  force  the  cotton  mills  could  not  employ 
children  under  16  more  than  8  hours  a  day,  and  therefore  would 
not  have  opposed  a  similar  standard  for  other  industries.  But  two 
days  after  the  Supreme  Court  decision  was  rendered  the  children 
were  put  back  on  the  11 -hour  schedule  and  any  attempt  to  amend 
this  section  of  the  law  is  likely  to  meet  with  bitter  opposition.  The 
attempt  should  be  made,  however,  as  it  is  intolerable  to  think  of  a 
return  to  the  11-hour  day.  As  there  are  no  other  industries  which 
work  children  for  so  many  hours,  none  would  be  seriously  affected 
by  an  8-hour  law.  Stores,  movies,  restaurants  and  the  telegraph 
companies  frequently  work  children  until  late  at  night  but  this  is 


Child  Labor  Law  Administration  143 

illegal  under  the  night  work  provision  of  the  law,  and  since  children 
do  not  go  to  work  very  early  in  the  morning  in  any  of  these  establish- 
ments, an  8-hour  day  would  not  change  the  hours  schedule  ver}^ 
materially.  Children  who  began  work  at  8  in  the  morning  would 
leave  at  5  instead  of  6  at  night,  but  employers  should  be  able  to  adapt 
the  work  to  those  hours  without  great  inconvenience. 

Educational  Requirements 

As  was  suggested  in  the  section  on  "Work  Permit  Blanks," 
the  educational  requirement  for  work  permits  is  far  too  low.  Some 
states  require  the  completion  of  the  elementary  school,  others  of 
the  5th,  6th  or  7th  grade.  In  Alabama  there  are  7  grades  in  the  ele- 
mentary school  and  the  child  should  have  completed  at  least  4  of 
these  before  he  is  permitted  to  sever  his  connection  with  the  school 
and  go  to  work.  If  a  child  leaves  from  any  grade  lower  than  the 
fourth  he  has  done  nothing  more  than  primary  work  and  the  road 
back  to  illiteracy  is  very  short  for  the  child  who  has  not  gone  far 
enough  to  do  a  little  original  thinking. 

Another  section  in  the  law  requires  children  between  14  and  16 
who  are  employed  in  mills  or  manufacturing  establishments  to  at- 
tend school  8  weeks  each  year.  There  is  no  particular  reason  why 
children  in  mills  and  factories  should  be  required  to  attend  school 
when  other  employed  children  are  not,  and  this  third  educational 
requirement,  different  again  from  the  requirement  for  work  permits 
and  the  compulsory  education  requirement,  is  enough  to  confuse  the 
most  intelligent  issuing  officer.  The  clause  should  be  stricken  out 
and  no  attempt  made  at  continuation  schooling  until  it  can  be  ex- 
tended to  all  employed  children  and  there  are  school  faciHties  to 
take   care   of   them. 

Reports  of  Issuing  Officers 

The  law  requires  the  superintendent  of  schools  to  report  each 
month  to  the  State  Inspector  the  names  of  all  children  to  whom  per- 
mits have  been  granted  or  denied  during  the  preceding  month. 
These  reports  constitute  the  only  record  the  department  has  of  the 
number  of  outstanding  work  permits  and  although  it  is  impossible 
now  to  find  out  how  many  there  are  because  the  returns  are  not 
complete,  the  department  is  making  a  special  effort  to  secure  com- 


144  Child  Welfare  in  Alabama 

plete  reports  every  month.  When  no  permits  have  been  issued,  the 
department  requests  issuing  officers  to  send  in  the  monthly  blank 
with  "No  Report"  written  on  it  so  that  the  department's  record  will 
be  complete  and  no  time  or  postage  will  be  wasted  in  trying  to  get 
the  reports.  The  law  does  not  require  the  officers  to  make  a  report 
if  no  permits  have  been  issued  and  as  one  or  two  officers  have  objected 
on  the  ground  that  the  law  does  not  require  them  to  do  so,  it  would 
be  well  to  amend  the  law  specifying  that  officers  must  report  every 
month  whether  any  permits  were  issued  or  not. 

Vacation  Employment 

The  present  law  permits  the  employment  of  children  12  and 
over  in  business  offices  and  mercantile  establishments  in  towns  of 
25,000  or  fewer  inhabitants  when  the  public  schools  are  not  in  session. 
No  work  permits  are  required  of  these  children  so  that  although  an 
age  limit  of  12  is  specified  in  the  law,  no  proof  of  age  is  necessary  and 
a  child  of  any  age  may  represent  himself  to  be  12.  Vacation  employ- 
ment, where  it  is  permitted  at  all,  should  be  as  carefully  safeguarded 
as  regular  employment.  It  would  be  advisable  therefore,  to  pro- 
vide for  vacation  permits  to  be  issued  to  children  12  and  over  in  such 
towns,  based  on  the  same  requirements  as  for  regular  permits  ex- 
cept that  they  should  be  good  in  offices  and  stores  only  for  the 
summer  inonths  and  that  children  need  not  have  completed  the 
fourth  grade  to  secure  them. 

Reorganization  of  Inspection  Depaitment. 

At  present  the  child  labor  act  is  the  only  state  labor  law  and 
the  act  providing  for  the  inspection  of  almshouses  and  jails  is  the 
only  one  that  belongs  in  the  fields  of  charities  and  correction.  Since 
there  was  no  labor  department  and  no  state  charities  department 
when  the  child  labor  law  was  passed,  the  best  solution  seemed  to  be 
to  combine  the  work  of  child  labor  inspection  with  that  of  the  ex- 
isting machinery  for  the  inspection  of  jails  and  almshouses.  But 
such  a  combination  of  duties  makes  the  work  of  the  State  Inspector 
very  difficult  as  each  field  calls  for  such  entirely  different  knowledge 
and  interests  that  no  inspector  could  be  well  qualified  to  enforce 
both  laws.  If  the  next  legislature  passes  the  proposed  workmen's 
compensation  act,  the  child  labor  law  might  well  be  administered 


Child  Labor  Law  Administration  145 

by  the  same  machinery  created  for  its  enforcement,  organized  as  a 
Department  of  Labor.  If  a  Department  of  Labor  is  not  organized 
but  instead  a  State  Board  of  Social  Welfare  is  created,  and  if  the 
workmen's  compensation  law  is  administered  by  a  division  of  this 
board,  the  child  labor  law  should  be  administered  by  the  same 
division.  If  no  workmen's  compensation  law  is  passed  the  child 
labor  law  should  be  administered  by  a  division  of  child  welfare  in 
the  proposed  State  Board  of  Social  Welfare. 


Summary  of  Recommendations 

The  more   important   recommendations  may   be   summarized 
as  follows : 

I.     Amendments  to  child  labor  law. 

1.  Clause   prohibiting   employment   in    any    occupation   of   children 

under  16  during  school  hours  to  make  age  limit  in  child  labor 
law  correspond  to  age  limit  in  compulsory  education  law. 

2.  8-hour  day,  48-hour  week,  in  any  occupation  under  16  years. 

3.  Clause  authorizing  inspector  to  investigate  evidence  of  age  upon 

which  work  permit  was  issued  and  suspend  it  if  illegal  evidence 
has  been  accepted. 

4.  Clause  requiring  issuing  officers  to  give  children  claiming  to  be 

16  or  over  age  certificates  when  employers  request  them. 

5.  Omission  of  clause  requiring  children  between  14  and  16  working 

in  mills  and  factories  to  attend  school  8  weeks  each  year. 

6.  Raising   of   educational   requirement   for   work   permits   from   60 

days  during  previous  year  to  completion  of  4th  grade. 

7.  Clause  requiring  issuance  of  vacation  permits  to  children  between 

12  and  14  for  employment  in  offices  and  stores  in  towns  of  fewer 
than  25,000  inhabitants  during  summer  vacation  on  same 
requirements  as  regular  permits  except  educational. 

8.  Issuance  of  permits  in  duplicate — one  for  employer,  and  one  for 

state  inspector. 

9.  Extension  of  authority  to  revoke  newsboy  badges  to  school  super- 

intendents or  other  issuing  officer  issuing  them  and  authorizing 
inspectors  to  show  cause  why  they  should  be  revoked. 

10.  Organization  of  Department  of  Labor  to  administer  proposed  work- 

men's compensation  act  and  the  child  labor  law,  or  creation  of 
a  State  Board  of  Social  Welfare  with  a  division  of  child  welfare 
which  would  administer  the  child  labor  law. 

11.  Two  additional  inspectors  and  sufficient  clerical  help. 


146  Child  Welfare  in  Alabama 

II.  Conflicts  necessitating  amendments  to  compulsory  education 

law. 

1.  The  maximum  compulsory  school  attendance  age  limit  should  be 

raised  from  15  to  16  years  and  the  exemptions  to  the  law  should 
be  abolished  as  there  are  no  exemptions  to  the  child  labor  law 
permitting  the  employment  of  children  under  14  during  the  school 
year. 

2.  Section  9  of  the  compulsory  education  law  of  1915  requires  a  child 

between  8  and  15  who  is  employed  during  school  hours  to  have 
a  permit  from  the  Board  of  Education.  Under  the  child  labor 
law  no  child  may  be  employed  at  any  time  until  he  is  14  and 
between  14  and  16  must  have  a  work  permit  issued  by  the 
superintendent  of  schools.  The  permit  called  for  in  the  com- 
pulsory education  law  is  an  unnecessary  duplication. 

III.  General  recommendations. 

1.  Closer  co-operation  with  issuing  officers. 

2.  Organization  of  local  child  labor  committees. 

3.  More  prosecutions,  giving  inspectors  power  to  swear  out  warrants 

and  prosecute  without  reporting  to  main  office. 

4.  Extension  of  inspection  to  smaller  cities,  especially  those  where 

cantonments  or  war  industries  have  created  abnormal  conditions. 

5.  Municipal    ordinances   regulating    street   selling   in    towns    where 

problem  is  acute  and  is  not  covered  by  state  law. 

6.  Co-operation  of  school  teachers  and  principals  in  enforcing  street 

trades  law. 


JUVENILE  COURTS  AND  PROBATION 

Mrs.  W.  L.  Murdoch 

Birmingham,  Alabama 

INTRODUCTION 

This  inquiry  was  undertaken  with  a  view  to  learning  how  well 
the  juvenile  court  is  serving  the  purpose  for  which  it  was  created, 
in  what  respect  it  has  failed,  if  at  all,  and  what  should  be  done  to 
make  it  fully  successful.  A  questionnaire  was  sent  to  the  juvenile 
courts  of  the  67  counties  of  the  state,  asking  for  the  number  of  cases 
dealt  with  in  the  year  1917,  whether  separate  dockets  for  children's 
cases  were  kept,  whether  separate  trials  were  held,  what  disposition 
was  made  of  each  case,  and  what  were  the  chief  causes  of  local 
delinquency  and  dependency.  The  counties  of  Jefferson,  Mobile, 
Montgomer}%  Dallas,  Madison,  Lee,  Pike,  Etowah,  Walker,  Tusca- 
loosa, Calhoun  and  Houston  were  visited  and  the  probate  judges 
who,  except  in  Jefferson  and  Mobile  Counties,  serve  also  as  juvenile 
court  judges,  were  personally  intei^viewed,  as  well  as  the  probation 
officers,  if  any,  the  sheriffs,  chiefs  of  police,  judges  of  recorder's 
courts  and  heads  of  charitable  societies.  The  available  records  and 
dockets  of  the  courts  were  carefully  examined,  and  detention  homes, 
if  any  existed,  were  visited.  If  it  was  reported  that  children  were 
held  in  jail,  this  was  visited  and  its  condition  observed;  and  the 
relation  between  the  courts  and  societies  engaged  in  placing  out  chil- 
dren was  noted. 

Replies  to  the  questionnaires  were  received  from  only  30 
counties;  of  these  26  keep  separate  dockets  for  children's  cases  but 
only  5  have  probation  officers.  Juvenile  court  work  is  commonly 
carried  on  cither  without  investigation  of  the  homes,  surroundings 
and  circumstances  of  children,  or  local  charitable  agencies  are  relied 
upon  to  furnish  such  infonnation.  In  most  of  the  counties  of  the 
state  no  probation  work  is  done  and  no  records  of  dependent  and 
neglected  children  are  kept.  Very  few  relief  societies  are  able  to 
supply  statistics  of  their  work.  In  many  small  towns  the  mayor 
acts  as  father  adviser,  as  well  as  judge  of  the  recorder's  court  to 

147 


148 


Child  Welfare  in  Alabama 


small  boys  whom  he  generally  reprimands  and  dismisses  when  brought 
before  him  by  the  police.    No  records  are  made  of  such  proceedings. 


Number  of  Children  Passing 
Through  Courts  in  1917 

County                               White  Colored            Total 

Baldwin 2  13 

Bullock 1  10                         11 

Calhoun 63  13                        76 

Chilton 10  0                         10 

Colbert 3  5                          8 

Conecuh 3  4                         7 

Cullman 3  0                         3 

Dale 1  3                          4 

Dallas 13  29                        42 

DeKalb 3  14 

Escambia 1  0                          1 

Franklin 3  14 

Geneva 3  1                          4 

Houston 6  4                        10 

JeflEerson 870  524                    1,394 

Madison 8  2                         10 

Mobile 87  96                      183 

Montgomery 168  286                       454 

Pike 2  13 

Tuscaloosa 9  4                        13 

Washington 1  1                          2 

1,260  986                   2,246 

Lee  reported  54  and  Walker  20  white  and  colored  children 74 

2,320 


The  courts  in  Birmingham,  Montgomery,  Mobile,  Selma  and 
Huntsville,  the  five  largest  cities,  were  intensively  studied  because 
of  the  larger  problems  they  face.  Only  Mobile  and  Birmingham 
have  detention  homes.  The  others  use  the  jail  when  detaining  a 
child  awaiting  trial  and  until  sent  to  institution  after  trial,  though 
rarely  for  more  than  a  few  days  at  a  time.  Paid  probation  officers 
give  their  entire  time  to  the  work  in  Birmingham,  Montgomery 
and  Mobile;  in  Selma  a  colored  officer,  who  is  paid  a  very  small 
monthly  salary,  is  assigned  to  cases  of  negro  children,  the  advisory 
board  serving  as  probation  officer  for  white  children.     In  Hunts- 


Juvenile  Courts  and  Probation  149 

ville,  the  judge  relies  entirel}-  upon  the  advisory  board  for  such  as- 
sistance, having  no  probation  officer  and  no  detention  home. 

The  twelve  counties  visited  lie  in  the  mining,  industrial,  and 
agricultural  sections,  including  the  "Black  Belt,"  and  hence  the 
study  has  comprehended  conditions  prevailing  in  these  well-marked 
di\'isions,  while  at  the  same  time  the  territory  chosen  has  afforded 
the  opportunity  to  observe  the  operation  of  the  two  special  juvenile 
court  acts  now  in  force  in  the  state,  as  well  as  the  state-wide  law. 

JUVENILE   COURT  LAWS 

The  state  has  three  juvenile  court  laws — one  is  state-wide  in 
application,  one  relates  to  Mobile  County  exclusively,  and  one  to 
Jefferson  County  exclusively. 

The  state-wide  law  confers  upon  the  court  jurisdiction  over 
children  under  16  years,  but  makes  no  clear  distinction  between 
delinquent  and  dependent  or  neglected  children.  All  children 
under  16  years  of  age  over  whom  the  court  has  jurisdiction,  are 
declared  to  be  wards  of  the  state.    The  law  reads : 

"Any  child  under  sixteen  years  of  age  who  violates  any  law  of  the 
State,  or  who  violates  any  ordinance  of  any  municipality  of  this  State, 
or  who  is  incorrigible;  or  who  knowingly  associates  with  thieves,  or 
gamblers;  or  who  is  growing  up  in  idleness  or  crime;  or  knowingly  visits 
or  enters  a  house  of  ill  fame;  or  who  knowingly  visits  or  patronizes  any 
policy  shop,  bucket  shop,  pool  room,  billiard  room,  bar  room,  or  club 
room,  where  liquors  are  kept  or  drunk,  or  served  to  members;  or  where 
any  gaming  table,  or  device  for  gambling  is  operated,  or  who  loiters 
about  any  such  places;  or  who  habitually  smokes  cigarettes;  or  who 
wanders  about  the  streets  at  night  without  being  on  any  lawful  business; 
or  who  habitually  wanders  about  any  railroad  yards,  or  tracks,  or  jumps 
or  hooks  on  to  any  moving  engine  or  car;  or  unlawfully  enters  any  engine 
or  car;  or  who  habitually  uses  any  vile,  obscene,  profane,  or  indecent 
language;  or  is  found  in  possession  of  any  indecent,  lascivious  book, 
picture,  print,  card  or  paper;  or  who  is  in  possession  of  any  pistol,  dirk, 
bowieknife,  or  metal  knuckles;  or  is  guilty  of  immoral  conduct  in  any 
public  place,  or  in  or  about  any  school  house,  or  who  engages  in  any 
occupation,  calling  or  exhibition,  or  is  found  in  any  place  for  permitting 
which  an  adult  may  be  punished  by  law;  and  generally,  any  child  who  so 
deports  himself,  or  is  in  such  conditions,  or  surroundings,  or  is  under  such 
improper,  or  insufficient  guardianship,  or  control,  as  to  endanger  the 
morals,  health,  or  general  welfare  of  such  child,  shall  be  deemed  a  ward 
of  the  State,  and  entitled  to  its  care  and  protection;  and  the  State  shall 
exercise  its  right  of  guardianship  and  control  over  such  child  in  the  man- 
ner hereinafter  provided." 


150  Child  Welfare  in  Alabama 

It  thus  appears  that  delinquent,  dependent  and  neglected  chil- 
dren are  placed  under  the  jurisdiction  of  these  courts.  While  the 
question  has  not  been  determined  or  even  raised,  the  wording  of 
the  act  is  probably  such  as  to  give  jurisdiction  over  defective  chil- 
dren not  receiving  proper  care  or  treatment. 

The  state-wide  law  also  grants  to  the  court  jurisdiction  over 
persons  contributing  to  the  delinquency  of  a  child  or  who  are  responsi- 
ble for  its  dependency  or  neglect.  It  embodies  the  best  principles 
of  the  juvenile  court  theory — that  is,  the  chancery  court  procedure, 
designed  not  so  much  to  punish  children  as  to  discover,  and  remove 
if  possible  the  causes  of  their  delinquency  or  to  come  to  the  aid  of 
dependent  or  neglected  children  and  to  create  for  all  of  them  con- 
ditions of  life  as  nearly  normal  as  possible.  With  regard  to  dependent 
or  neglected  children,  the  provisions  of  the  law  are  so  broad  that  these 
may  be  taken  from  their  parents  even  when  the  neglect  is  due  to 
religious  faith.  The  court  has  the  right  to  exercise  jurisdiction  over 
seriously  sick  children  whose  parents  refuse  to  summon  a  physician 
or  allow  hospital  care  because  of  the  tenets  of  their  religion.  In- 
deed, the  state-wide  law  gives  the  juvenile  court  judge  ample  lati- 
tude in  all  cases  of  neglect — a  feature  which  makes  it  superior  to 
the   special   Mobile   law. 

The  probate  judge  of  each  county  is  authorized  by  the  state- 
wide law  to  act  as  juvenile  judge  in  the  absence  of  a  special  juvenile 
court.  Recorder's  courts  have  concurrent  jurisdiction  with  pro- 
bate courts  only  in  reference  to  children  who  violate  city  ordinances. 
These  courts,  as  a  rule,  transfer  such  children  at  once  to  the  juvenile 
or  probate  court.  The  law  provides  that  separate  dockets  shall  be 
kept  and  separate  trials  held  of  all  children's  cases.  The  appoint- 
ment of  probation  officers,  both  paid  and  volunteer,  and  of  advisory 
boards  to  serve  as  assistants  to  the  judge,  is  also  provided  for.  The 
advisory  boards  are  entrusted  with  general  supervision  over  the 
court's  work. 

Failure  of  fathers  to  support  and  care  for  their  children  brings 
them  under  the  jurisdiction  of  juvenile  judges,  but  the  provision 
of  the  non-support  law  by  which  the  county  was  required  to  pay 
fifty  cents  daily  out  of  the  public  funds  to  the  wife  or'  children  of  a 
deserting  husband  or  father  put  to  work  upon  the  county  road, 
was  declared  unconstitutional  by  the  Alabama  Supreme  Court  because 
of  a  defect  in  the  title  of  the  act.    Still,  even  without  the  provision 


Juvenile  Courts  and  Probation  151 

for  the  relief  of  the  family  during  the  period  of  the  deserter's  ser- 
vices on  the  county  roads,  the  non-support  law  has  been  of  great 
service  in  the  handling  of  cases  of  neglected  children. 

The  state-wide  juvenile  court  law  recognizes  the  theory  that 
the  home  is  the  best  place  for  a  child  unless  his  parents  or  guardian 
be  of  such  character  as  to  be  detrimental  to  his  welfare,  in  which 
case  the  judge  may  place  him  on  probation  either  in  his  own  home  or  in 
a  selected  family,  or  may  commit  him  to  an  institution.  Under  the 
state-wide  law,  a  child  awaiting  trial  may  be  kept  in  a  jail,  if  no 
other  place  is  provided  for  the  purpose  and  if  in  the  judgment  of 
the  court,  it  is  absolutely  necessan,^,  but  in  a  room  entirely  separate 
and  apart  from  any  in  which  adult  prisoners  are  confined. 

The  special  Jefferson  County  juvenile  court  law  confers  juris- 
diction over  boys  under  16  years  and  girls  under  18  years  of  age, 
who  are  "delinquent,  indigent,  neglected,  or  otherwise  subject  to 
discipline  or  in  need  of  care  and  protection,  of  the  state."  The  judge 
of  the  court  must  be  a  lawyer  and  must  devote  his  entire  time  to 
the  work  of  the  court.  The  placing  of  a  child  in  jail  is  forbidden, 
and  provision  by  the  county  of  a  shelter  or  detention  home  is  author- 
ized. In  other  respects  the  law  is  practically  similar  to  the  state- 
wide act,  except  as  to  the  appointment  of  the  judge.  The  judge  of 
the  Jefferson  County  juvenile  court  is  appointed  by  the  governor 
for  a  term  of  six  years. 

The  special  Mobile  County  Act,  creating  a  special  juvenile 
court,  does  not  require  the  judge  to  give  all  his  time  to  the  work. 
He  must  be  a  lawyer  and  is  allowed  $50  a  month  for  his  services.  A 
Juvenile  Court  Commission  is  provided  for,  and  empowered  to  ap- 
point the  judge  and  the  probation  officers.  The  establishment  of 
a  detention  home  or  homes,  for  the  care  of  children  awaiting  trial, 
or  living  in  such  homes  on  probation  or  otherwise,  is  authorized 
and  two  have  been  established,  one  for  white  boys,  one  for  white 
girls.  Really  the  Mobile  law  applies  only  to  delinquent  children. 
There  is  no  provision  for  the  handling  of  dependent  or  neglected 
children,  or  of  persons  contributing  to  the  delinquency  of  a  child 
or  causing  his  neglect. 

Procedure  in  Juvenile  Courts,  State-wide  or  Special.  A 
child  is  brought  before  any  of  the  courts  upon  petition.  The  arrest 
of  a  child  in  the  ordinary  way  is  not  forbidden,  but  in  such  event 
he  is  to  be  turned  over  to  the  juvenile  court.     When  the  child  is 


152  Child  Welfare  in  Alabama 

brought  in,  a  probation  officer,  if  available,  is  assigned  to  the  case 
at  once  to  make  a  thorough  investigation  of  all  the  circumstances 
connected  with  it.  In  the  absence  of  any  such  agent  the  court 
relies  for  its  information  upon  investigations  made  by  voluntary 
agents,  or  by  the  advisory  board  and  upon  the  testimony  at  the 
trial.  In  most  of  the  counties  of  the  state  there  are  no  probation 
officers  and  but  few  children's  cases  are  heard  in  the  course  of  a  year, 
hence  all  the  details  of  juvenile  court  procedure  are  not  followed. 
A  model  set  of  blank  forms  for  use  both  in  guiding  officers  and  in 
recording  facts,  has  been  prepared  by  the  judge  of  the  Jefferson 
County  Court,  but  in  many  of  the  smaller  courts,  the  forms  were 
not  used  and  the  procedure  was  found  to  consist  simply  in  bringing 
the  child  in  on  petition,  entering  the  case  on  the  docket,  and  holding 
an  informal  hearing. 

CARE   OF   CHILDREN  AWAITING   TRIAL 

In  all  the  cities,  except  Birmingham  and  Mobile,  the  jails  are 
used  for  holding  children  awaiting  trial — usually  for  only  a  few  days 
in  each  case ;  but  in  some  places  it  was  found  that  children  had  been 
kept  in  jail  several  weeks  at  a  time.  In  Montgomery,  the  probate 
judge  is  the  juvenile  judge  and  where  juvenile  court  cases  are  heard 
only  once  a  week,  children  have  several  times  been  held  in  jail  more 
than  two  weeks  awaiting  trial.  In  Mobile  it  was  found  that  occa- 
sionally negro  boys,  who  had  been  committed  by  the  court  to  the 
Mount  Meigs  Reformatory,  were  detained  as  long  as  two  weeks 
awaiting  transfer  by  the  sheriff.  In  all  such  cases,  they  had  been 
kept  separate  from  adult  prisoners,  and  in  most  instances  the  jails 
were  clean  and  fairly  well  ventilated.  The  enforced  idleness  of  the 
children  in  these  jails  seems  to  be  the  worst  feature  of  the  practice. 

In  Madison  County,  arrangements  have  been  made  with  the 
Volunteers  of  America  for  the  care  of  white  children  but  negroes 
are,  once  in  a  while,  kept  in  the  jail  which  is  in  a  condition  far  from 
satisfactory  and  by  no  means  a  proper  place  for  the  detention  of  any 
child. 

No  delinquent  white  children  were  handled  by  the  Dallas 
County  court  in  1917  and  the  dependents  were  cared  for  in  suitable 
local  homes  until  committed  to  institutions  or  placed  in  foster 
homes.    Negro  children  awaiting  trial  are  held  in  jail. 


Juvenile  Courts  and  Probation  153 

Children  who  are  arrested  by  the  poHce  and  taken  before  the 
mayors  of  cities  are  rarely  put  into  jail — indeed,  the  mayors  report 
that  almost  without  exception  such  children  are  transferred  at 
once  to  the  juvenile  courts.  In  Mobile,  for  instance,  the  chief  of 
police  merely  detains  them  in  his  office  until  he  can  communicate 
wdth  the  superintendent  of  the  detention  home  or  with  the  proba- 
tion officer.  In  Jefferson  County,  the  commissioner  of  public  safety 
for  Binningham  reports  that  although  171  children  were  arrested 
by  the  police  in  1917,  no  records  were  made  of  their  cases  nor  were 
any  of  them  placed  in  jail,  but  all  were  turned  over  at  once  to  the 
juvenile  court. 

DETENTION  HOMES 

Local  advisory  boards  deplore  the  lack  of  detention  homes, 
but  examination  of  the  records  indicated  that  if  good  probation 
officers  were  provided,  the  dependent  and  neglected  children  could 
be  boarded  in  private  homes  at  much  less  expense  than  would  be 
incurred  for  the  maintenance  of  a  detention  home.  Outside  of  the 
counties  with  large  cities,  delinquents  except  in  very  rare  cases 
could  be  satisfactorily  cared  for  in  the  home  of  a  good,  strong, 
sympathetic  man.  A  few  unusual  cases  might  have  to  be  held  in 
jail  until  sent  to  some  institution.  This  is  unfortunate,  but  for  the 
present,  it  appears  to  be  the  only  solution. 

The  detention  home  for  white  boys  in  Mobile  County  is  worthy 
of  special  comment.  The  building  is  by  no  means  ideal  for  the  pur- 
pose, but  the  grounds  are  large  and  make  gardening  and  other 
out  door  work  possible.  The  superintendent  is  one  of  the  probation 
officers  of  the  juvenile  court.  Because  of  the  superintendent's 
understanding  of  boys'  needs,  the  home  is  a  constructive  force  in 
the  community.  The  boys  attend  the  nearest  public  school  and  bring 
weekly  reports  from  the  teachers.  They  are  practically  all  deHn- 
quents.  As  a  reward  for  good  conduct,  they  are  frequently  paroled 
to  their  own  homes  for  week-ends.  The  reader  is  referred  to  the 
chapter  on  Child-Caring  Institutions  for  a  description  of  the  Mobile 
Boys'  Detention  School,  which  is  really  a  home  for  custodial  care. 
Recently  a  detention  home  for  white  girls  was  established  and 
placed  under  the  same  supervision  but  with  a  matron  in  immediate 
charge.  It  is  unfortunate  that  the  county  makes  no  similar  pro- 
visions for  the  care  of  negro  boys  or  girls,  delinquent  negro  children 


154  Child  Welfare  in  Alabama 

being  held  in  jail  unless  otherwise  disposed  of.  There  is  no  place 
for  dependent  or  neglected  negro  children. 

In  Jefferson  County  a  remodeled  residence  houses  both  the 
juvenile  court  and  the  detention  home.  In  the  latter  both  white 
and  negro  children  of  both  sexes  are  cared  for  in  separate  quarters, 
the  average  daily  number  being  twent3^ 

As  the  state  has  no  institution  for  delinquent  negro  girls, 
juvenile  courts  are  at  a  loss  to  know  what  to  do  with  this  class  of 
offender,  and  in  the  absence  of  detention  homes  where  they  might 
be  held  pending  more  satisfactory  arrangements  in  their  behalf, 
they  are  commonly  placed  out  in  homes,  or  sent  to  convict  camps. 
Negro  boys  are  also  placed  out.  Frequently  both  negro  boys  and 
girls  are  placed  out  with  white  persons. 

DISPOSITION   OF   CHILD 

If  a  child  charged  with  delinquency  is  found  to  be  guilty,  the 
judge  may  commit  him  to  a  state  or  private  institution,  or  relaese 
him  on  probation,  or  arrange  for  his  placement  or  board  in  a  family. 
Indeed,  the  state-wide  and  Jefferson  County  laws  are  so  broad  that 
the  judge  may  choose  virtually  any  course  that  seems  to  safeguard 
the  interests  of  the  child  to  the  best  advantage.  Since  the  state-wide 
and  Jefferson  County  laws  draw  no  clear  distinction  between  delin- 
quents and  dependents  or  neglected  children,  it  follows  that  in  the 
disposition  of  such  cases  the  juvenile  courts  have  the  same  wide 
discretion.  They  can  send,  and  in  many  cases  have  sent,  dependent 
children  to  the  state  reformatories. 

PROBATION 

The  state-wide  juvenile  court  law  provides  that: 

"The  courts  having  jurisdiction  of  proceedings  under  this  chapter 
may,  either  jointly  or  separately,  appoint  probation  officers,  who  may  be 
either  men  or  women,  who  must  be  of  good  moral  character,  intelligent, 
of  blameless  lives,  and  in  sympathy  with  the  aims  and  purposes  of  this 
chapter,  who  under  the  order  of  courts,  shall  have  the  oversight  and  care 
of  such  children  as  may  be  committed  by  said  courts  to  their  charge  or 
supervision;  and  shall  file  a  petition  in  the  said  probate  court  in  the  case 
of  any  child  coming  under  his  notice  who  is  in  need  of  the  State's  care 
and  protection;  and  shall  also  bring  charges  against  any  person  who 
aids  or  encourages  any  child  to  violate  any  law,  or  any  order  of  said 


Juvenile  Courts  and  Probation  155 

courts.  Said  probation  officers  shall  serve  during  the  pleasure  of  the 
court,  or  courts  appointing  them,  and  shall  be  removable  by  the  said 
court,  or  courts.  When  the  probate  court  shall  appoint  a  probation 
officer,  or  officers,  the  commissioner's  court,  or  board  of  revenue,  of  said 
county,  must  pay  such  officer  or  officers  a  reasonable  salary  to  be  fixed 
by  agreement  with  said  judge;  and  when  the  recorder's  court  shall  ap- 
point a  probation  officer,  or  officers,  the  governing  body  of  said  city  shall 
pay  said  officer  or  officers  a  reasonable  salary  to  be  fixed  by  agreement 
with  said  judge;  when  such  courts  shall  jointly  appoint  a  probation  offi- 
cer, or  officers,  the  said  authorities  of  said  city  and  county  shall  jointly 
pay  said  officer,  or  officers,  a  reasonable  salarj'-,  to  be  fixed  by  agreement 
with  said  court;  such  probation  officers,  when  so  appointed  and  quali- 
fied, shall  have  all  the  power  and  authority  of  peace  officers  anywhere 
in  the  State.  The  said  courts,  or  either  of  them,  shall  also  have  the  right 
and  authority  to  appoint  one  or  more  volunteer  probation  officers,  who 
when  so  appointed  and  qualified,  shall  have  and  exercise  all  the  power  and 
authority  vested  in  said  probation  officers  under  this  section." 

Only  five  of  the  cities  visited  make  any  provision  for  probation 
work  and  only  four  have  paid  officers.  The  probation  officer  acts  as 
investigator  before  the  child's  trial,  and  as  adviser  to  the  judge  at 
the  trial,  as  well  as  counsellor,  guide  and  friend  of  the  child  at  all 
times.  Inasmuch  as  the  court  is  a  social  agency,  whose  object  is 
to  make  conditions  nonnal  for  children  in  every  way,  if  possible, 
complete  knowledge  and  understanding  of  all  the  circumstances 
affecting  each  case  must  be  gained  and  as  these  essentials  can  be 
gained  only  through  the  probation  officer,  this  officer  becomes  vital 
to  the  success  of  the  court.  A  juvenile  court  without  a  probation 
officer,  is  a  juvenile  court  in  name  only. 

In  Jefferson,  Montgomery  and  Mobile  Counties,  there  are 
full-time  probation  officers  for  both  white  and  colored  children  and 
Selma  has  a  paid  officer  for  colored  children,  as  heretofore  stated. 
Elsewhere  in  the  state  there  are  only  volunteer  workers  or  none  at 
all.  Often  the  judge  himself  docs  a  large  amount  of  probation  work, 
especially  in  counties  of  small  population.  In  Calhoun  County, 
for  example,  of  the  63  cases  of  white  children  handled  in  1917,  44 
were  on  probation  under  the  judge's  personal  supervision. 

Etowah,  one  of  the  large  counties  where  probation  work  is  a 
constant  need,  relies  for  this  service  upon  a  welfare  worker  for  the 
city  of  Gadsden,  who  is  not  connected  with  the  court.  In  Madison, 
Pike  and  Dallas  Counties,  the  local  advisory  boards  do  the  probation 
work. 


156  Child  Welfare  in  Alabama 

The  judge  for  Tuscaloosa  County  not  only  acts  himself  as  pro- 
bation officer  for  both  white  and  colored  children,  but  also  co- 
operates with  men  of  the  community  in  a  "Big  Brother"  movement 
to  look  after  boys  on  probation.  This  is  done  in  Houston  County 
also.  Under  such  an  arrangement,  children  report  to  the  judge, 
the  Big  Brothers  assigned  to  their  cases  visiting  their  homes  and 
consulting  their  school  teachers  from  time  to  time  to  see  that  all 
goes  well. 

COMMITMENT  TO   INSTITUTIONS 

Nearly  every  judge  visited  had  committed  to  institutions  most 
of  the  delinquent  children  brought  before  him.  Both  judges  and 
advisory  boards  commonly  regard  such  disposition  of  delinquent 
children  as  best  for  their  welfare.  The  distinction  between  depend- 
ents and  delinquents  is  not  always  carefully  made  in  such  commit- 
ments. Complete  case  histories  are  not  forwarded  to  the  institutions, 
and  dependents  are  frequently  committed  to  each  of  the  state  insti- 
tutions for  delinquent  white  children.  If  investigations  were  made 
by  probation  officers,  in  many  instances,  relatives  could  be  found 
able  and  willing  to  care  for  such  children.  This  situation  will  be 
improved  to  a  great  extent  by  the  Alabama  Children's  Aid  Society 
and  many  children  classified  as  delinquents,  as  well  as  dependents, 
will  be  cared  for  without  being  committed  to  institutions.  Where 
there  are  probation  officers,  the  proportion  of  children  committed 
to  institutions  is  much  less  than  where  there  are  none;  for  parents 
often  bring  children  to  court  on  slight  complaints  and  ask  to  have 
them  sent  to  institutions.  Such  cases  can  nearly  alwaj^s  be  disposed 
of  satisfactorily  through  the  medium  of  a  probation  worker. 

Parents  also  go  directly  to  the  institutions  themselves,  at  times, 
and  ask  that  their  children  be  admitted  on  the  grounds  that  they 
are  incorrigible  and  superintendents  have  received  them.  There 
is  some  doubt  as  to  the  authority  of  the  institutions  in  such  cases. 
In  order  that  there  may  be  no  doubt,  this  should  be  prohibited  by 
law  and  only  children  duly  committed  by  the  juvenile  courts  should 
be  admitted  to  state  institutions  for  delinquents,  dependents  or 
defectives.  With  preliminary  investigation  by  probation  officers, 
and  co-operation  with  the  Children's  Aid  Society  and  other  proper 
agencies,  this  condition  will  soon  be  remedied. 

In  Jefferson  County,  out  of  1,394  cases  handled  in  1917,  only 


Juvenile  Courts  and  Probation  157 

150  were  committed  to  institutions,  while  424  were  placed  on  pro- 
bation. This  was  made  possible  by  careful  investigation.  In  Madi- 
son County,  where  there  is  no  probation  officer,  6  of  the  10  cases 
handled  in  1917  were  coinmitted  to  institutions. 

PAROLE 

The  law  provides  that  the  term  of  commitment  to  a  state  in- 
stitution shall  cover  the  period  until  the  child  is  21  years  of  age. 
Unless  he  is  released  by  its  governing  board,  the  juvenile  court  has 
no  right,  under  the  state-wide  law  to  recall  or  discharge  children 
committed  to  state  institutions.  This  is  proper.  The  institution 
alone  should  have  the  power  to  parole  or  discharge  a  child  com- 
mitted to  its  care.  The  law  does  not  require  the  superintendent  to 
report  to  judges  the  nmnber  of  children  paroled  or  discharged  and 
this  provision  should  be  incorporated.  At  present  none  of  the  state 
institutions  has  a  parole  officer  and  no  real  follow-up  work  is  done — 
the  child  comes  back  to  the  institution  only  upon  further  complaint 
and  court  proceedings,  and  hence  there  is  no  way  of  determining 
whether  or  not  the  work  of  either  the  court  or  the  institution  has 
been  satisfactory.  To  be  effective  each  institution  should  have  at 
least  one  parole  officer — a  man  for  boys  and  a  woman  for  girls — for 
one  good  officer  in  touch  with  children  on  parole  usually  prevents 
the  occasion  of  their  return  to  the  institution  and  thereby  saves  the 
state  far  more  than  his  salary. 

PLACING   OUT 

The  judges  of  all  the  courts  visited  place  children  out  for 
adoption  or  foster  case.  Charitable  societies  also  arc  engaged  in 
placing  children  or  in  having  them  adopted.  So  far  as  could  be 
learned  no  apprenticing  of  children  goes  on.  The  whole  business 
is  exceedingly  lax.  Very  few,  if  any,  records  are  kept.  Little  inves- 
tigation is  made  and  there  is  but  little,  if  any,  follow-up  work.  The 
child  simply  goes  to  a  new  home,  and  so  far  as  courts  or  records 
are  concerned,  that,  in  most  cases,  is  the  end  of  the  matter.  Pro- 
vision should  be  made  for  keeping  complete  records,  for  investi- 
gating every  home  into  which  a  child  is  sent  and  for  follow-up  work 
in  every  case.  The  state  should  know  that  the  child  is  being  prop- 
erly cared  for.    These  matters  should  not  be  left  to  chance. 


158  Child  Welfare  in  Alabama 

RECORDS   AND   REPORTS 

The  state-wide  juvenile  court  law  provides  that  a  separate 
docket  be  kept  for  all  children's  cases,  and  this  is  done  in  all  but 
three  of  the  counties  visited,  but  the  blank  fonns  for  case  records 
(copies  of  which  had  been  supplied  to  every  juvenile  court  in  the 
state)  are  disregarded,  the  judges  in  Jefferson,  Montgomery,  and 
Mobile  Counties  alone  using  complete  sets.  In  general  the  same 
entry  form  is  used  for  both  dependent  and  delinquent  children. 
In  almost  no  court  is  the  age  of  the  child  given.  This  makes  any 
study  of  case  histories  extremely  difhcult.  In  the  courts  which  fail 
to  keep  a  separate  docket,  it  is  impossible  to  learn  anything  about  the 
number  of  cases  handled.  In  some  courts,  as  in  Etowah  County,  the 
only  method  of  obtaining  information  concerning  children  handled 
in  1917  was  to  get  from  state  institutions  a  list  of  those  committed 
from  the  county— and  naturally  the  results  were  not  satisfactory. 

Very  few  judges  pay  much  attention  to  records  and  where 
not  more  than  a  dozen  juvenile  cases  are  dealt  with  in  an  entire  year, 
this  is  not  surprising.  Records  of  probation  work  are  not  kept  in 
any  of  the  counties  except  in  Jefferson,  Montgomery,  IMobile,  Dallas 
and  Lee.  The  first  three  use  regular  forms  for  filing  and  the  two 
others  make  only  informal  notes.  When  the  judge  acts  as  probation 
officer  or  v/here  the  mayor  handles  the  cases,  no  records  of  probation 
work  are  kept  at  all.  A  uniform  system  of  records  for  case  histories 
and  probation  work  for  use  by  juvenile  courts  throughout  the  state 
is  necessary  in  order  to  standardize  procedure  and  treatment  and  to 
make  available  the  comprehensive  infomiation  essential  to  an  under- 
standing of  the  problems  of  juvenile  delinquency  and  dependency. 

CAUSES   OF   JUVENILE  DELINQUENCY  AND   DEPENDENCY 

As  only  the  five  juvenile  courts  that  have  advisory  boards  make 
annual  reports,  no  general  data  can  be  obtained  upon  which  to  base 
safe  conclusions  as  to  causes,  but  judging  from  the  material  col- 
lected in  this  inquiry,  it  seem.s  that  the  broken  home,  whether  due 
to  death,  desertion  or  divorce,  is  the  chief  factor  in  bringing  children 
to  court.  Every  judge  interviewed  declared  that  lack  of  parental 
control  was  responsible  for  most  of  his  delinquency  cases.  The  loss 
of  the  father  and  bread-winner,  by  throwing  the  support  of  the 
family  upon  the  mother,  produces  an  abnormal  condition  in  the 


Juvenile  Courts  and  Probation  159 

home — the  mother  goes  out  to  work,  leaving  the  children  more  or 
less  to  their  own  d.e\'ices,  and  delinquency  is  not  unlikely  to  follow. 
If  the  mother  has  children  too  young  to  leave,  dependency  usually 
ensues.  Lack  of  proper  recreational  opportunities,  child  labor,  and 
disregard  of  the  compulsory  school  attendance  law  are  also  con- 
tributing causes  of  delinquency.  Larceny  is  the  leading  offense 
among  boj's,  both  white  and  negro,  predominating  especially  among 
working  boys.  This  is  especially  true  of  errand  boys  sent  with  par- 
cels or  money  who  thus  have  opportunities  for  stealing  thrust 
upon  them  and  often  yield  to  the  temptation. 

The  people  of  Alabama  need  to  be  awakened  to  the  situation. 
Nearly  every  judge  deplores  the  absence  of  agencies  to  assist  him  in 
his  work  and  complains  of  the  community's  indifference.  If  an 
advisory  board  were  appointed  in  every  county  to  act  as  a  real  child 
welfare  agency  as  the  law  provides,  visiting  institutions  that  receive 
children,  reporting  cases  of  neglect,  suffering  and  misbehavior  to 
the  court,  and,  most  important  of  all,  providing  for  a  county  pro- 
bation officer,  much  of  the  juvenile  delinquency  would  be  prevented. 
It  is  quite  natural  that  a  judge  in  a  rural  county  of  little  population 
should  look  upon  an  advisory  board  and  a  probation  officer  as  un- 
necessary but  nevertheless  the  work  would  be  much  better  done  with 
their  help.  The  probation  officer  in  such  a  locality  could  serve  also 
as  the  school  truancy  officer  and  this  combination  of  duties  would 
keep  him  constantly  occupied.  Most  of  the  juvenile  courts  are 
presided  over  by  probate  judges,  who  are  elected  for  a  term  of  six 
years  and  who  therefore  have  the  time  to  develop  a  policy  for  child 
caring.  Probate  and  juvenile  judges,  without  exception,  show  a 
keen  desire  to  do  the  best  for  every  child  in  their  communities,  but 
without  the  assistance  of  advisory  boards  and  probation  officers 
their  hands  are  virtually  tied  and  the  children  do  not  have  that  con- 
sideration which  the  law  is  designed  to  assure  them.  The  law  is 
based  upon  the  idea  of  the  court  as  a  social  agency  whose  judge  might 
be  likened  to  a  wise  father  and  the  probation  officer  to  a  kindly 
mother  who  together  are  working  for  the  best  interests  of  the  child ; 
but  the  judges  for  the  most  ]3art  do  not  have  probation  officers  as 
helpmates  and  so  the  system  is  ];ut  half  established.  Because  of 
lack  of  understanding  of  the  value  and  importance  of  ]ir()l-)ation 
work,  the  county  boards  of  revenue,  which  arc  responsible  for 
financing  the  work  of  the  courts,  do  not  provide  for  probation  offi- 


160  Child  Welfare  in  Alabama 

cers  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  the  law  requires  them  to  do  so.  If  the 
money  value,  to  say  nothing  of  the  social  value,  of  the  preventive 
work  done  by  good  probation  officers  could  be  shown  to  these  boards, 
some  of  them  undoubtedly  would  realize  that  adequate  appropria- 
tions for  such  a  purpose  are  fully  justified. 

The  state-wide  juvenile  court  law  contains  no  reference  to 
feeble-minded  children  and  the  state  makes  no  provision  for  their 
care.  In  reply  to  a  questionnaire  sent  to  county  superintendents 
of  schools  a  large  number  of  such  children  was  reported.  The  figures 
for  some  counties  seem  excessive,  owing  to  the  fact  that  the  mean- 
ing of  the  term  "feeble-minded"  was  not  clearly  defined  or  understood, 
but  it  is  significant  that  every  superintendent  reported  some  feeble- 
minded children  in  his  county.  The  state  undoubtedly  has  a  large 
number  of  such  children,  and  an  institution  for  their  care  and  treat- 
ment is  imperative. 

The  general  prosperity  has  tended  to  reduce  the  number  of 
dependent  children  and  yet  there  is  still  a  good  deal  of  poverty  in 
the  rural  districts.  The  inability  of  ignorant  mothers  to  spend 
money  wisely  even  when  the  bread-winner  for  the  family  is  earning 
good  wages,  forces  many  at  his  death  into  dependency.  Mothers 
with  dependent  young  children  should  receive  such  aid  as  will  en- 
able them  to  keep  their  families  and  properly  support  and  educate 
their  children. 

RECOMMENDATIONS 

1.  There  should  be  in  every  county  a  combined  probation 
and  truancy  officer  or  bureau  appointed  jointly  by  the  board  of 
revenue  and  school  board  upon  the  recommendation  of  the  judge 
of  the  juvenile  court  and  paid  for  full-tiine  service  out  of  public 
funds,  one-half  to  come  from  the  public  school  ftmds.  Advisory 
boards  should  be  immediately  appointed  in  every  county  in  conform- 
ity with  the  law. 

2.  The  Jefferson  Coimty  juvenile  court  law  should  be  amended 
so  as  to  make  possible  an  increase  in  the  salary  of  the  judge  and  pro- 
vision should  be  made  for  more  workers  attached  to  the  court. 

3.  Because  of  the  large  population  and  large  and  increasing 
nimiber  of  cases  requiring  attention,  Montgomery  County  should 
be  granted  a  separate  juvenile  coiu-t  with  a  full-time  judge  and  more 
probation  officers. 


Juvenile  Courts  and  Probation  161 

4.  The  non-support  law  should  be  amended  so  as  to  restore  the 
pa}TTient  by  the  county  of  a  certain  amount  of  money  per  diem  to 
the  ^\dfe  or  family  of  a  deserter  during  the  term  of  his  sendee  at 
labor  for  the  coimty. 

5.  Children  within  the  juvenile  court  age  should  be  com- 
mitted to  state-supported  institutions  only  by  the  juvenile  court; 
and  the  power  to  commit  dependent  or  neglected  children  to  insti- 
tutions for  delinquent  children  should  be  taken  away. 

6.  No  child  should  be  allowed  to  be  received  by  any  state- 
supported  institutions  unless  duly  committed  by  a  court  of  competent 
jurisdiction. 

7.  There  should  be  established  a  system  of  uniform  records 
for  all  juvenile  courts,  not  only  for  the  docket  but  also  for  case 
histories  and  probation  work.  It  is  suggested  that  a  manual  be 
prepared  for  the  use  of  juvenile  courts,  containing  a  digest  of  the 
laws,  a  Hst  of  child-caring  institutions  and  agencies  in  the  state, 
and  forms  for  imiform  records. 

8.  The  act  of  apprenticeship,  having  been  superseded  by  the 
juvenile  court  law,  should  be  repealed. 

9.  In  the  event  of  the  creation  of  the  proposed  State  Board  of 
Social  Welfare,  the  chief  of  its  child  welfare  division  should  be 
required  to  visit  personally  all  the  juvenile  courts  and  probate 
courts  acting  as  juvenile  courts  for  the  purpose  of  advising  with 
the  judges  and  of  instructing  probation  officers  in  the  best  methods 
of  handling  juvenile  cases.  The  chief  of  this  child  welfare  division 
should  also  formulate  rules  and  regulations  within  the  scope  of  the 
law,  to  systematise  the  commitment  of  children  to  both  state  and 
private  institutions  in  all  cases  where  such  commitment  is  deemed 
necessary. 

10.  Juvenile  courts  should  be  required  to  funiish  the  child 
welfare  division  of  the  proposed  State  Board  of  Social  Welfare  with 
a  statement  of  the  disposition  of  all  cases  coming  before  them. 

11.  State  institutions  receiving  children  should  be  under  the 
supervision  of  the  child  welfare  division  of  the  State  Board  of  Social 
Welfare,  if  such  board  is  created.  The  superintendent  should  be 
required  to  report  to  the  committing  court  the  facts  of  the  discharge, 
parole,  escape  or  death  of  the  child  committed. 

12.  An  institution  for  feeble-minded  children  should  be  pro- 
vided at  once. 


162  Child  Welfare  in  Alabama 

13.  An  institution  for  delinquent  negro  girls  should  be  pro- 
vided. 

14.  In  the  event  that  the  legislature  of  1919  authorizes  a 
recodification  of  the  laws  of  the  state,  a  commission,  to  serve  with- 
out pay,  should  be  authorized  and  appointed  to  codify  existing  laws 
relating  to  children  and  to  study,  investigate,  and  recommend 
to  the  General  Code  Commission  such  new  laws  and  changes  in 
the  present  laws  as  may  be  found  to  be  wise  and  needful. 


CHILD-CARING    INSTITUTIONS    AND    HOME    FINDING 

Lee  Bidgood 

Professor  of  Economics,  University  of  Alabama 

PART  I.— CHILD-CARING   INSTITUTIONS 

There  are  twenty-five  recognized  institutions  in  Alabama 
caring  for  2,200  defective,  dependent  or  delinquent  children.  There 
are  institutions  of  all  the  important  types,  except  that  none  exists 
for  feeble-minded  children.  The  writer  visited  every  one  of  them 
and  studied  the  reports  of  such  as  publish  any.  There  are  in  addition 
50  children  in  almshouses,  and  about  a  dozen  in  the  insane  hospitals. 

Of  the  2,200  children,  350  are  negroes,  substantially  all 
defectives  or  delinquents.  Only  one  institution  for  dependent 
negro  children  was  visited  and  it  had  a  population  of  but 
three.  Two  other  such  institutions  were  reported,  and  one 
of  them  the  writer  tried  to  find — he  finally  learned  from  a 
local  social  worker  who  had  been  familiar  with  it  that  the  institu- 
tion had  a  "staff"  of  nine  adults  and  a  population  of  three  children, 
that  it  had  been  several  times  investigated  by  the  police  though 
without  result  and  that  it  had  moved  twice  in  the  past  year,  the  last 
time  to  parts  unknown.  The  social  workers  interviewed,  both  white 
and  negro,  concurred  in  stating  that  the  absence  of  demand  for 
negro  orphanages  is  due  to  the  fact  that  orphaned  or  neglected 
negro  children  are  practically  always  claimed  or  taken  by  some 
relative,  friend  or  neighbor.  A  few  negroes,  like  the  well-known 
Sam  Daly,  take  strange  children,  and  in  such  numbers  as  to  ap- 
proach institutional  conditions. 

List  of  Institutions 

CHILDREN 
INSTITUTION  LOCATION       ON     HAND, 

191S 

I.     For  Defective  Children 

Alabama  School  for  the  Deaf Talladega 187 

Alabama  School  for  the  Blind Talladega 102 

Alabama  School  for  the  Negro  Deaf 

and  Blind Talladega 52 


341 


1G3 


164 


Child  Welfare  in  Alabama 


INSTITUTION 


LOCATION 


CHILDREN 

ON    HAND, 

1918 


n.     For  Dependent  Children. 

A .     Municipal. 

City  Welfare  Home 


.Birmingham.. 


B.     Private. 

1.     Denominational. 

Alabama     Maternity     and     Infants' 

Home Mobile 42 

Alabama  Methodist  Orphanage Selma 83 

Atheneum  Orphans'  Home  (Catho- 
lic)   Birmingham.. .  .      103 

Church  Home  for  Orphans  (Episco- 
pal)   Mobile 43 

Louise   Short   Baptist   Widows'   and 

Orphans'  Home  of  Alabama Evergreen 166 

Orphans'    Home    of    the    Synod    of 

Alabama  (Presbyterian) Talladega 72 

St.   Mary's  Female  Orphan  Asylum 

(Catholic) Mobile 85 

St.    Mary's    Industrial    School    and 

Orphanage  (Catholic) Mobile 92 

Salvation  Army  Rescue  Home Birmingham...  .         7 


779 


2.     Inter-  or  un-denominational. 

Colored    Old    Folks'    and    Orphans' 

Home Mobile 3 

Mercy  Home Birmingham.. .  .  83 

Mercy   Home   Industrial   School   for 

Girls Birmingham.. .  .  31 

Protestant  Orphan  Asylum Mobile 54 


171 


3.     Fraternal 

Alabama  Masonic  Home Montgomery. . .     128 

Alabama  Odd  Fellows'  Home Cullman 106 


234 


Child-Caring  Institutions  and  Home  Finding  165 


CHILDREN 
INSTITUTION  LOCATION        ON   HAND, 

1918 

III.     For  Delinquent  Children. 
1.     State. 

Alabama  Boys'  Industrial  School ....  East  Lake 375 

Alabama  Reform  School  for  Juvenile 

Negro  Law-Breakers Mt.  Meigs 298 

State  Training  School  for  Girls Birmingham ...        57 

730 


Mtcnicipal. 

Boys'  Detention  School Mobile 9 

Girls'  Detention  Home Mobile 3 

Detention    Home    of    the    Jefferson 

County  Juvenile  Court Birmingham ...  5 

Detention  Home  of  the  Montgomery 

County  Juvenile  Court Montgomery....       00 


747 


TOTAL 2,191 

I.     FOR    DEFECTIVE    CHILDREN. 

Alabama  School  for  the  Deaf. 

Alabama  School  for  the  Blind. 

Alabama  School  for  the  Negro  Deaf  and  Blind. 

These  three  schools  are  physically  separate,  but  are  all  located 
at  Talladega,  and  have  the  same  principal  and  board  of  trustees. 
They  are  regarded  as  adjtincts  to  the  public  school  system,  and  take 
any  children  whose  sight  or  hearing  is  so  defective  as  to  prevent 
satisfactory  progress  in  the  ordinary  schools.  The  age  of  attendance 
is  that  of  the  public  schools,  7  to  21,  but  pupils  may  re- 
main until  25  to  complete  the  ten  years  of  attendance  per- 
mitted by  law.  Twelve  grades  are  taught,  and  the  period  of 
residence  may  be  extended  four  years  if  necessary  to  complete  them. 
Most  of  the  children  are  in  the  primary  grades,  and  boys  usually 
predominate  in  numbers. 

The  session  is  nine  months  in  length,  and  no  children  are  taken 
who  do  not  have  a  parent  or  guardian  to  be  responsible  for  them  dur- 
ing vacation.     During  the  session  of  1917-1918  tlie  attendance  in 


166  Child  Welfare  in  Alabama 

the  School  for  the  Deaf  was  187,  in  the  School  for  the  Blind  102, 
and  in  the  School  for  the  Negro  Deaf  and  Blind  52.  The  last-named 
school  can  accommodate  only  the  number  given,  is  always  full  and 
usually  has  a  waiting  list.  The  other  schools  can  take  a  few  more 
children.  There  are  always  counties  which  do  not  send  a  single 
pupil.  By  circularizing  the  teachers  and  physicians  of  the  state 
the  schools  do  their  best  to  reach  deaf  and  blind  children,  and  to 
arouse  the  public  to  the  invaluable  benefits  offered  by  their  training. 
The  per  capita  appropriation  for  all  three  schools  is  $230  per  annum. 

The  School  for  the  Deaf  occupies  several  acres  in  the  heart  of 
the  town.  Its  plant  consists  primarily  of  four  large  brick  buildings. 
One  is  used  for  administration,  dining  rooms,  kitchen  and  laundry, 
and  has  the  girls'  dormitory  on  the  upper  floors.  Another  contains 
the  gymnasium  and  boys'  dormitory,  a  third  is  the  school  building, 
and  the  fourth  houses  the  shops.  The  buildings  are  well  con- 
structed, though  one  is  old,  and  the  school  building  is  a  model  of  its 
kind.  There  is  a  beautiful  campus,  and  a  small  garden  for  educa- 
tional purposes.     The  shops  are  excellently  equipped. 

The  School  for  the  Blind  is  located  in  the  suburbs.  Its  plant 
consists  of  three  brick  buildings  and  a  small  frame  cottage,  used  as  a 
home  for  the  little  children.  None  of  the  buildings  are  very  old, 
but  they  are  poorly  built,  of  patchwork  design,  and  not  in  the  best 
repair.  The  dormitory  rooms  are  very  unsatisfactory,  and  the  work- 
rooms are  largely  lacking  in  proper  equipment.  There  is  an  attrac- 
tive campus. 

The  School  for  the  Negro  Deaf  and  Blind  is  a  few  miles  from  the 
town  on  a  fine  tract  of  twenty  acres,  mostly  wooded.  The  plant 
consists  of  a  good  brick  building,  and  one  or  two  slight  frame  struc- 
tures used  as  workrooms.     Equipment  is  meager. 

The  three  institutions  publish  a  joint  report  quadrennially,  in 
the  legislative  years. 

II.     FOR   DEPENDENT   CHILDREN. 

A.    Municipal. 

City  Welfare  Home.     Birmingham. 

This  is  maintained  by  the  city  government  of  Birmingham, 
and  is  under  the  immediate  control  of  its  Welfare  Department. 
It  is  located  in  the  outskirts  of  the  city,  and  occupies  a  four-acre 


Child-Caring  Institutions  and  Home  Finding  167 

enclosure  which  was  formerly  a  German  beer-garden  and  amuse- 
ment park.  Half  the  space  is  covered  with  a  fine  oak  grove,  and  the 
back  part  is  cultivated  as  a  garden.  The  old  paviHon  has  been 
partitioned  off  and  provides  quarters  for  homeless  men.  Four  of 
these  wanderers  were  there  when  the  place  was  visited.  The  kitchen 
and  dining  room  for  all  residents  are  also  in  the  pavilion.  A  frame 
cottage  is  used  to  house  the  women  and  children.  The  cook  serves 
as  its  matron.  The  matron  of  the  city  welfare  department  lives  in  a 
bungalow  on  the  grounds,  but  goes  to  her  work  in  the  city  during  the 
day. 

The  place  has  become  practically  a  maternity  home  for  unfortu- 
nate girls.  As  there  are  no  hospital  facilities  they  are  sent  to  the 
Hillman  Hospital  for  delivery.  There  were  61  maternity  cases  last 
year.  It  was  stated  to  be  the  policy  of  the  home  for  the  mothers  to 
nurse  their  infants  for  three  months  in  the  summer  and  one  month 
in  winter.  Both  the  babies  found  on  the  day  of  the  visit  were  bottle- 
fed,  however.  The  women  go  into  the  city  every  day  to  work  at  rug 
weaving  in  the  Industrial  Home  for  Women.  The  women  often 
have  other  dependent  children  who  are  received  into  the  home. 
Five  were  found  there  on  the  day  of  the  visit.  Sometimes  the 
children  received  into  this  environment  are  6  or  8  years  of  age. 
No  report  is  published. 

B.    Private. 

1.  Denominational. 

Alabama  Maternity  and  [nf ants'  Home  (Catholic).  St.  Anthony  and 
Broad  Streets,  Mobile. 

This  is  conducted  by  the  Sisters  of  Charity.  The  property 
consists  of  a  large  brick  building  immediately  on  the  street,  with 
an  enclosed  lawn  in  the  rear.  A  small  frame  cottage  has  been  con- 
structed in  the  middle  of  this  lawn. 

There  were  42  children  in  the  home  on  June  15.  This  number 
approximates  the  capacity  of  the  institution  and  the  average  popu- 
lation. During  the  previous  year  100  infants  in  all  were  cared  for. 
Of  these,  9  were  adopted  into  private  homes,  7  transferred  to 
other  institutions,  5  died  and  the  others  remained  in  the  home 
or  were  withdrawn  by  relatives.  The  babies  that  arc  big  enough 
to  walk  are  kept  in  the  little  cottage  mentioned.     It  is  almost  all 


168  Child  Welfare  in  Alabama 

windows — well  designed,  but  overcrowded.  A  few  of  the  bigger 
children  stay  in  the  main  building.  Their  rooms  have  insufficient 
window  space.  Children  are  not  usually  kept  in  the  home  past 
the  age  of  4.  The  home  receives  a  subvention  of  $50  a  month  from 
the  city  government  of  Mobile.    No  report  is  published. 

Alabama  Methodist  Orphanage.     Selma. 

The  plant  consists  of  one  large  brick  building.  There  are  53 
acres  of  land,  productive  and  well  cultivated,  good  dairy  herd,  and 
modem  dairy  bam.  The  land  is  tilled  mostly  by  the  boys,  and 
yields  almost  enough  vegetables  and  feed  to  supply  the  table  and 
stock.  The  girls  can  winter  supplies,  and  have  a  successful  canning 
club.  They  also  do  the  washing  by  hand.  There  is  a  shady  yard  and 
playground,  with  some  apparatus. 

The  capacity  and  normal  population  of  the  orphanage  is  90. 
Eighty-three  were  present  on  the  day  of  visit,  53  girls  and  30  boys. 
The  application  and  contract  forms  and  records  of  this  orphanage 
are  drawn  and  kept  with  unusual  care  and  system.  The  old  fixed- 
leaf  ledger  is  adhered  to,  hov/ever.    No  report  is  published. 

Athenemn  Orphans'  Home  (Catholic).     East  Lake  (Birmingham). 

The  home  is  conducted  by  the  Sisters  of  Charity.  It  is  one 
of  the  best  of  the  congregate  plants,  occupying  a  single  modern 
brick  structure.  The  building  is  located  on  the  top  of  a  fairly  high 
hill  in  a  six-acre  oak  grove.  There  are  ample  lawns  and  a  small 
garden,  as  well  as  many  tiny  individual  flower  and  vegetable  gardens 
tended  by  the  children.  In  kitchen,  lavatory,  bath  and  toilet  facili- 
ties the  plant  shows  marked  superiority  to  most  of  the  large  units 
visited,  but  in  some  of  the  sleeping  rooms  the  usual  fault  of  the  big 
building  appears — insufficiency  of  window  space. 

During  the  past  year  131  children  were  cared  for.  On  June  21, 
there  were  103  present,  60  girls  and  43  boys.  This  is  a  little  less 
than  the  normal  capacity.  Boys  are  kept  in  this  home  usually  until 
the  age  of  10  and  then  transferred  to  St.  Mary's  in  Mobile.  No 
report  is  published. 

Church  Home  for  Orphans  (Episcopal).     Spring  Hill,  Mobile. 

This  home  is  conducted  by  the  Episcopal  Diocese  of  Alabama. 
It  is  beautifully  located  on  the  slopes  of  Spring  Hill,  occupying  a 


Child-Caring  Institutions  and  Home  Finding  169 

tract  of  ten  acres.  There  are  three  beautiful  cottages,  a  modem 
dairy  bam  and  other  outbuildings.  The  home  owns  a  small  herd 
of  milch  cows,  and  a  few  pigs  and  chickens.  There  is  a  considerable 
garden  and  some  feed  is  growni  for  the  cows,  but  the  soil  is  not  es- 
pecially responsive.  The  stock  and  gardens  are  admirably  utilized 
for  the  enjoyment  and  education  of  the  children. 

Unfortunately,  the  home  lacks  sufficient  funds  to  run  at  full 
capacity  or  completely  on  the  cottage  plan.  The  limit  imposed  by 
its  income  is  50,  which  is  little  more  than  one  cottage  full. 
Kitchen  and  dining  rooms  are  now  operated  in  only  one  of  the  cot- 
tages. There  were  43  children  on  June  13,  11  boys  and  32  girls. 
Only  small  boys  are  kept.  Admittance  is  resolutely  restricted  to 
the  number  of  children  for  whom  there  is  money  enough  to  care  for 
properly.  The  cottages  and  equipment  are  models,  and  the  appear- 
ance and  manners  of  the  children  proclaim  this  to  be  a  real  home. 
It  is  near  the  summit  of  institutional  development.  No  report  is 
published. 

Louise  Short  Baptist  Widows'  and  Orphans'  Home  of  Alabama. 
Evergreen. 

The  home  is  on  an  eighty-acre  farm  just  beyond  the  village. 
Its  plant  consists  of  four  brick  buildings  and  a  dairy  and  mule  bam. 
One  building  is  used  for  administrative  purposes  and  for  the  larger 
boys'  dormitory,  a  second  contains  the  congregate  kitchen  and  dining 
room  and  the  larger  girls'  dormitory,  the  third  houses  the  little 
children,  and  the  fourth  is  used  as  an  infirmary.  Two  of  the  buildings 
are  of  rather  poor  construction  and  not  in  good  repair.  The  school 
building  was  lost  by  fire  a  few  years  ago,  and  the  institution  lacks 
l^ropcr  classrooms. 

There  were  166  children  in  the  orphanage  on  the  day  when  it 
was  visited,  87  girls  and  79  boys.  This  approximates  the  capacity 
and  the  usual  poj^ulation.  A  report  may  be  found  in  the  Annual 
of  the  Alabama  Baptist  State  Convention. 

Orphans'  Home  of  the  Synod  of  Alabama  (Presbyterian).  Talladega. 
The  orphanage  is  located  on  a  tract  of  a  few  acres  in  the  suburbs 
of  the  town,  and  has  a  large  and  fine  farm  a  mile  out  in  the  country. 
There  are  three  brick  buildings,  one  of  which  is  new  and  well-designed. 
There  is  a  good  woodworking  and  machine  shop.     The  institution 


170  Child  Welfare  in  Alabatna 

boasts  an  especially  fine  and  large  dairy  herd,  and  has  a  good  daily 
bam.  There  is  a  silo,  built  as  well  as  filled  by  the  boys.  More  than 
enough  wheat  was  raised  last  year  to  supply  the  needs  of  the  insti- 
tution for  flour.  The  canning  club  of  24  girls  is  active  and  shows 
good  results. 

There  were  72  children  on  June  23;  slightly  less  than  the  nor- 
mal capacity.  Forty-one  were  girls  and  31  boys.  An  annual  report 
is  published. 

St.  Mary's  Female  Orphan  Asylum  (Catholic).  357  Conti  St., 
Mobile. 

This  is  one  of  the  oldest  orphanages  in  the  state,  having  attained 
its  eightieth  year.  It  is  conducted  by  the  Sisters  of  Charity.  Its 
home  during  the  school  year  is  an  old  building  in  the  down-town 
district  of  the  city.  When  visited,  however,  the  Sisters  and  children 
were  at  the  siunmer  home  at  Battles,'  on  the  east  shore  of  Mobile  Bay. 
This  summer  home — rather  a  unique  feature  among  orphanages — 
is  occupied  during  the  three  vacation  months.  It  is  a  large  pavilion- 
like frame  structure  facing  the  bay.  A  private  pier  and  safe  and 
inviting  bathing  beach  are  part  of  the  propert3^  A  small  garden 
is  cultivated  in  summer,  but  suffers  from  lack  of  a  caretaker  during 
the  rest  of  the  year.  The  house  is  crowded  but  very  airy,  and  though 
city  water  and  sewerage  are  unobtainable  the  lavatory  and  sanitary 
arrangements  are  good. 

The  orphanage  cared  for  131  girls  during  1917.  There  were 
85  on  June  14,  considerably  less  than  the  usual  number.  No  report 
is  published. 

St.  Mary's  Indiistrial  School  and  Orphanage  (Catholic).  3  Lafay- 
ette Street,  Mobile. 

This  is  for  boys  and  is  the  companion  institution  to  the  one  just 
described.  It  is  conducted  by  the  Brothers  of  the  Sacred  Heart. 
It  receives  a  good  many  boys  from  west  Florida  as  well  as  Alabama. 
It  is  located  on  a  six-acre  tract  in  the  city,  and  holds  a  somewhat 
larger  acreage  outside.  It  has  very  extensive  greenhouses  and 
flower  gardens.  There  are  two  large  buildings,  neither  of  modem 
design. 

On  June  15  there  were  92  boys  in  the  orphanage.  The  total 
number  cared  for  in  1917  was  155.    No  report  is  published. 


Child-Caring  Institutions  and  Home  Finding  171 

Salvation  Army  Rescue  Home.    33rd  St.  and  Avenue  E,  Birmingham. 

This  is  primarily  a  maternity  home  for  unmanied  women.  It 
is  a  large  frame  residence  in  the  Avondale  section  of  the  city.  Thirty- 
four  babies  were  bom  in  the  home  during  1917,  and  fourteen  others 
cared  for.  Only  two  died,  a  remarkable  record.  There  were  seven 
on  the  day  of  visit.  It  is  the  policy  of  the  home  to  keep  the  mother 
and  baby  together.  This  is  done  primarily  for  the  sake  of  the  mother, 
as  the  best  means  of  reclamation.  It  is  equally  to  the  advantage 
of  the  child  during  the  first  year  of  its  life,  unquestionably.  There 
is  a  resident  trained  nurse. 

Circumstances  occasionally  bring  older  children  into  the  home. 
For  them  a  bungalow  next  door  is  rented.  There  were  three,  aged 
from  eighteen  months  to  3  years,  when  visited.  Children  as  old 
as  7  or  8  are  sometimes  taken,  though  reluctantly.  No  report  is 
published. 

2.     Inter-  or  un-denominational. 

Colored  Old  Folks'  and  Orphans'  Home.    Springhill  Ave.  and  Mobile 
Street,  Mobile. 
This  is  run  by  and  for  negroes.     It  is  a  small  cottage  on  a  six- 
acre  plot  in  the  suburbs.    Most  of  the  residents  are  old  people.    There 
were  three  children  when  visited.    This  is  about  the  usual  number. 

Mercy  Home.    2130  Eleventh  St.,  Birmingham. 

This  institution  is  under  the  auspices  of  the  Woman's  Christian 
Temperance  Union.  It  occupies  a  much  added-to  residence,  and 
backyard  cottage.  There  is  a  shady  lawn  and  playground,  but  not 
much  garden  space.  Despite  the  patchwork  character  of  the  build- 
ing it  is  in  good  repair,  and  the  sleeping  rooms  have  ampler  window 
space  than  is  often  found  in  more  pretentious  structures.  The  per 
capita  cost  is  less  than  $10  a  month;  one  of  the  smallest  among  the 
private  institutions.  Yet  the  children  give  the  impression  of  being 
better  cared  for  than  the  majority  of  those  seen. 

There  were  83  children  in  the  home  on  June  20,  about  10  below 
the  normal  capacity.  Twenty-two  of  these  were  boys.  As  a  rule 
only  small  boys  are  kept.  Younger  children  are  taken  than  is  usual 
among  orphanages — some  as  young  as  2  years.  An  annual  report 
is  pubHshed. 


172  Child  Welfare  in  Alabama 

Mercy  Home  Industrial  School  for  Girls.    Woodlawn  (Birmingham). 

This  is  a  private  institution  whose  chief  support  is  an  annual 
appropriation  of  $5,000  from  the  state  treasury.  It  is  housed 
in  a  single  well-designed  brick  building.  The  grounds  and 
gardens  are  small,  and  naturally  unpromising,  but  illustrate 
admirably  the  beauty  which  can  arise  from  taste  and  industry. 
There  is  a  model  hennery. 

The  school  receives  dependent  girls  aged  from  12  to  16,  and 
teaches  them  practical  household  management  and  work, 
with  enough  elementary  general  education  to  make  that  possible. 
In  equipment  and  plan  it  bears  in  mind  the  type  of  home  to  which 
the  girls  are  likely  to  go.  For  example,  instead  of  washing  machinery 
and  electric  irons,  it  uses  the  most  modem  type  of  hand  tubs  and 
appliances,  practical  for  any  farm  dwelling.  The  capacity  is  31; 
it  is  always  full  and  usually  has  a  waiting  list.  The  per  capita  cost 
is  about  $15  a  month,  very  little  or  no  larger  than  in  some  of  the 
big  congregate  institutions,  including  perhaps  the  poorest  in  the 
state.    A  biennial  report  is  published. 

Protestant  Orphan  Asylum.    859  Dauphin  Way,  Mobile. 

This  is  the  oldest  child-caring  institution  in  the  state,  having 
been  founded  in  1836.  The  governing  board  is  composed  of  five 
women  from  each  of  the  four  leading  Protestant  denominations  of 
the  city.  The  building  was  erected  in  1845.  There  is  a  large  play- 
ground, with  ample  covered  shelter,  in  the  rear.  Garden  space  is 
limited.  The  dormitories  of  course  suffer  from  the  old-time  dislike 
of  fresh  air,  but  this  is  being  partially  remedied  by  screening  some 
of  the  ample  porches  for  sleeping  purposes. 

When  visited  there  were  54  children  in  the  home.  This  is  about 
the  normal  population  and  capacity.  Children  are  admitted  as 
young  as  2  years.  Boys  remain  only  until  14.  There  were  18  of 
them  on  June  13.     No  report  is  published. 

3.     Fraternal. 

Alabama  Masonic  Home.     Montgomery. 

The  home  consists  of  five  new  and  handsome  fireproof  build- 
ings and  one  small  frame  cottage.  It  is  on  a  farm  of  236  acres,  near 
the  city.    Is  a  home  for  the  aged  as  well  as  for  children,  and  two  of 


Child-Caring  Institutions  and  Home  Finding  173 

the  buildings  are  devoted  to  the  old  men  and  women  respectively. 
The  main  building  contains  the  administrative  offices,  dining-room 
and  kitchen,  and  the  children's  dormitories.  There  is  a  beautiful 
small  hospital,  perfectly  appointed,  and  a  very  good  school  build- 
ing, not  3^et  completely  equipped.  The  little  frame  cottage  in  the 
rear  is  occupied  by  eight  of  the  biggest  boys. 

The  children  seem  unusually  healthy  and  frank.  They  have 
few  tasks.  The  large  boys  attend  to  the  dairy,  but  do  very  little 
farm  or  garden  work.  The  girls  have  no  canning  club.  Negro  women 
are  hired  to  do  the  washing  by  hand,  but  the  girls  iron,  with  electric 
irons.  There  is  no  attempt  at  trade  education  as  yet,  but  it  is  in 
contemplation.  The  only  children  taken  are  those  of  Masons  in 
good  standing,  and  they  may  be  as  young  as  3  years.  There  were  128 
in  the  home  when  visited,  55  boys  and  73  girls.  A  report  is  published 
annually. 

Alabama  Odd  Fellows'  Home.    Cullman. 

The  home  is  housed  in  one  large  concrete  building,  on  a  fann 
near  the  town.  It  enjoys  the  use  of  another  tract  three  miles  away. 
The  building  is  concrete-floored,  almost  rude  in  character,  but  the 
atmosphere  is  home-like.  The  superintendent  and  boys  have  them- 
selves built  bams,  storehouses,  a  piggery  and  smaller  outbuildings 
solidly  of  concrete  on  approved  designs.  The  children  do  a  large 
part  of  the  farm  work — three  farm  hands  are  employed — and  the 
farm  produces  food  for  the  whole  home  and  some  to  sell.  There 
are  good  orchards,  and  an  immense  amount  of  fruit,  vegetables  and 
syrup  is  canned.  The  girls  have  a  canning  club,  and  take  prizes. 
Recreation  is  not  neglected.  There  is  a  creek  near  by  on  which  bath 
houses  have  been  built,  and  swimming  is  enjoyed  e\'ery  warm  day. 

Only  the  children  of  Odd  Fellows  in  good  standing  are  received 
in  the  home.  They  numbered  106  when  visited.  Tots  of  2  years 
may  be  taken.    A  report,  of  model  character,  is  published  annually. 

III.     FOR   DELINQUENT   CHILDREN. 
1 .    State. 

Alabama  Boys'  Industrial  School.   East  Lake  (Birmingham). 

The  plant  consists  of  four  large  buildings  and  several  smaller 
ones.    There  is  a  residence  for  the  superintendent,  good  bams,  and  a 


174  Child  Welfare  in  Alabama 

farm  of  over  a  hundred  acres.  There  are  woodworking,  machine, 
tailor,  shoe,  and  printing  shops,  fully  equipped. 

Dependent  as  well  as  delinquent  boys  may  be  placed  in  the 
school.  The  former  are  usually  the  smallest  boys  and  fortunately 
are  not  very  numerous.  The  legal  age  of  commitment  is  7  to  17, 
but  children  even  below  this  minimum  are  occasionally  taken. 
There  is  no  provision  for  the  segregation  of  the  little  boys. 
At  the  time  the  school  was  visited  the  superintendent  had  put  some 
of  the  smallest  ones  in  tents.    There  were  375  boys  on  June  21. 

The  boys  wear  unifonns  and  have  military  rather  than  penal 
discipline.  There  is  a  successful  honor  organization.  The  aim  of 
the  school  is  to  give  each  boy  an  ordinary  elementary  education 
and  teach  him  a  trade  in  addition.  Trade  education  is  gravely 
handicapped  by  the  loss  of  all  the  shop  foremen  through  shortage 
of  funds.  Older  boys  are  in  charge  of  each  shop  and  do  remarkably 
well.  There  is  a  good  band  in  charge  of  a  competent  instructor. 
The  classrooms  are  poor  and  badly  overcrowded.  The  main  dor- 
mitory rooms  are  far  too  closely  packed.  Hospital  facilities  are 
adequate  in  size  but  not  in  equipment.  The  per  capita  appropria- 
tion from  the  state  is  SI 2. 50  a  month.  The  school  impresses  a  visitor 
as  a  wholesome,  well-conducted  institution,  doing  good  work  under 
serious  physical  and  financial  limitations.  An  annual  report  is 
printed  on  the  school  press. 

Alabama  Reform  School  for  Juvenile  Negro  Law  Breakers.    Mt.  Meigs, 
Montgomery. 

This  institution  for  negro  boys,  operated  by  a  negro  staff,  is 
one  of  the  most  interesting,  and  in  proportion  to  its  funds,  certainly 
one  of  the  best  institutions  in  the  state.  It  is  located  on  a  farm  of 
492  acres  about  ten  miles  from  the  city.  Except  for  three  or  four 
small  wooden  cottages,  the  entire  plant  has  been  constructed  of 
poured  concrete  by  the  boys  and  out  of  the  state  appropriation 
of  $7  a  month  per  capita.  There  are  a  large  dormitory,  a  tempor- 
rary  assembly  room,  bams,  a  pump  house  and  tank,  baths  and  a 
small  swimming  pool.  The  old  cottage  houses  more  boys,  and  offices. 
Everything  is  simple,  bare,  even  crude,  but  clean.  The  kitchen  and 
dining  room  are  the  poorest  part  of  the  plant  in  design  and  con- 
struction. 


Child-Caring  Institutions  and  Home  Finding  175 

There  are  fine  orchards,  stock  of  all  kinds,  and  good  implements, 
including  a  tractor.  There  is  no  shop  equipment  except  bare  neces- 
sities for  repairing  tools  and  clothing,  and  only  the  boys  needed 
as  helpers  work  in  the  shop.  The  boys  usually  finish  the  third  grade 
in  school  by  the  time  of  leaving.  Every  boy  learns  to  be  a  good  farm 
hand,  and  most  of  them  should  be  competent  farmers.  There  are 
no  penal  features  in  evidence.  There  is  a  self-government  associa- 
tion, and  the  idea  of  preparation  for  self-support  is  continually  in- 
culcated. The  school  raises  four-fifths  of  the  food  consumed,  and 
cans  fruit,  vegetables  and  syrup  in  great  quantities.  In  this  work 
lies  the  secret  of  its  success,  financial  and  character-building.  On 
June  6  there  were  298  boys,  nearly  all  from  the  three  large  cities.  No 
report  is  published. 

State  Training  School  for  Girls.     Birmingham. 

This  is  an  institution  for  delinquent  girls  only.  The  legal  age 
of  commitment  is  9  to  18,  but  the  youngest  found  there  was  7. 
The  state  appropriation  is  SI 2. 50  a  month  per  capita.  There 
were  57  girls  on  June  21.  They  receive  an  elementary  school  educa- 
tion and  are  taught  household  work  and  management. 

The  overcrowded  building  of  this  institution  at  the  time  visited 
had  become  a  public  scandal,  and  its  removal  to  ampler  quarters 
was  at  that  time  being  arranged.  Since  then  the  school  has  been 
moved  from  Birmingham  to  a  point  fifteen  miles  in  the  country. 
The  sleeping  rooms  though  more  inconvenient  did  not  seem  more 
crowded  in  proportion  to  air  space  and  ventilation  than  those  at  the 
Boys'  Industrial  School.     No  report  is  published. 

2.    Municipal. 

Boys'  Detention  School.     Mobile. 

This  institution  is  not  primarily  intended  to  hold  offenders 
awaiting  trial,  though  it  serves  that  purpose.  It  is  a  supervised  home 
for  minor  offenders,  and  boys  homeless  or  in  bad  homes.  Its  re- 
markable success  is  perhaps  most  largely  due  to  the  personality  of 
the  superintendent,  but  the  plan  is  good.  It  occupies  a  former  boys* 
club  building,  using  the  gymnasium  floor  as  a  dormitory.  There  is  no 
restraint,  and  the  boys  go  to  the  nearest  public  school.  The  teach- 
ers send  in  reports  of  their  work  weekly,  on  form  cards  provided. 
Fourteen  out  of  sixteen  boys  made  their  grade  last  session.    There 


176  Child  Welfare  in  Alabama 

were  nine  boys  in  the  home  when  visited,  going  to  summer  school. 
Normally  there  are  about  fifteen.  Commitments  are  indeterminate, 
and  the  boys  are  paroled  usually  at  the  end  of  the  school  term  if 
they  have  done  well.  The  present  building  is  unsatisfactory  and  the 
grounds  are  too  scanty.  It  is  hoped  to  move  to  the  country.  The 
county  allows  $7.50  a  month  per  capita  for  support.  The  home 
has  one  of  the  best  record  systems  seen.    No  report  is  published. 

Girls'  Detention   Home.     Mobile. 

This  is  a  new  institution  for  white  girls  similar  to  the  one  for 
boys  and  under  the  same  management.  It  has  just  started,  and 
makes  use  of  a  private  cottage.  Only  three  girls  were  resident  in  it 
when  visited.  The  grave  experiment  has  been  undertaken  of  inter- 
mingling girls  technically  delinquent  with  those  merely  hard  to  con- 
trol, truant,  or  dependent. 

Detention  Home  of  the  Jefferson  County  Juvenile  Court.  2212  First 
Ave.,  Birmingham. 
This  is  an  old  brick  residence  in  indifferent  repair  located  in  the 
down-town  district.  It  contains  the  offices  and  court  room  of  the 
juvenile  court.  It  is  used  for  detention  prior  to  trial  and  also  for 
short  term  sentences.  There  are  quarters  for  both  colors  and  sexes. 
When  visited  there  were  three  negro  boys,  one  delinquent  white 
girl  and  one  very  small  white  boy  whose  mother  was  ill  and  who  had 
no  home  for  the  time.  The  negro  boys  were  in  a  steel  cage.  Both 
white  and  negro  boys  give  great  trouble  in  trying  to  escape.  Total 
numbers  of  the  children  committed  on  sentence  were  not  conveni- 
ently available,  but  the  clerk  stated  that  few  negro  and  no  white 
boys  had  been  thus  held  last  year.  It  is  to  be  hoped  that  no  more 
will  be  kept  on  sentence  under  present  conditions.  No  report  is 
published. 

Detention   Home  for  the   Temporary  Care  oj  Wards  of  the  Juvenile 
Court.     Montgomery. 
This  institution  has  just  been  established. 

Legal  Status 

The  six  state  institutions  have  been  established  from  time  to 
time  by  legislative  action,  and  changes  in  their  status  are  made  in 


Child-Caring  Institutions  and  Home  Finding  177 

the  same  way.  (Code  of  Alabama,  Sees.  1933-1953,  1954-1970. 
General  Acts,  1911,  pp.  395-403,  418-419,  483,  677-681.  General 
Acts,  1915,  passim.)  Each  has  a  separate  board  of  trustees.  The 
original  personnel  was  in  most  cases  appointed  by  the  governor 
and  confirmed  by  the  senate,  but  in  most  of  the  boards  vacancies 
are  filled  by  the  remaining  members.  Women  and  men  alike  are 
commonly  eligible.  There  is  no  central  control  or  supervision, 
and  no  state  institution  can  be  sued  in  the  state  courts.  (Consti- 
tution of  Alabama,  Sec.  14;   and  143  Ala.  579,  138  Ala.  479.) 

The  four  municipal  institutions  have  been  established  by  local 
ordinances  and  special  legislation.  Three  are  controlled  by  the 
juvenile  court  organization  of  Mobile  and  Jefferson  counties.  The 
other  is  under  the  Birmingham  City  Commission.  The  state  ex- 
ercises no  authority  over  any  of  them. 

Private  institutions  were  formerly  established  by  special  acts 
of  the  legislature,  but  this  is  forbidden  by  the  present  constitution, 
and  incorporation  under  general  legislation  substituted.  "Strictly 
benevolent,  educational,  or  religious  corporations"  are  exempted 
from  franchise  taxation.  All  charters  are  made  subject  to  amend- 
ment or  repeal  by  general  laws.  (Constitution  of  Alabama,  Sees. 
104,  229,  241.)  The  process  of  incorporation  under  the  general  laws 
is  very  simple  and  for  benevolent  societies  is  accomplished  by  adopt- 
ing a  resolution  to  incorporate  and  filing  in  the  county  probate  office 
a  certificate  stating  the  coi-porate  name  and  the  names  of  from  three 
to  twenty-four  persons  selected  as  trustees.  (Code  of  Alabama, 
Sees.  3613-3626.  General  Acts  of  1911,  p.  145).  Private  institu- 
tions are  under  no  governmental  supervision  or  control,  either  state 
or  local. 

Three  of  the  state  institutions  are  for  defective  children,  two 
for  delinquents,  one  for  delinquents  and  dependents.  Three  of  the 
municipal  institutions  are  primarily  for  delinquent  children  but 
occasionally  care  for  depenednts.  One  is  primarily  for  adult  un- 
fortunates, but  cares  incidentally  for  their  dependent  children. 
The  private  institutions  are  all  exclusively  for  dependents. 

Finances 

The  state  institutions  receive  ai)propriations  from  tiic  state 
treasury  made  on  a  per  capita  basis.  The  use  of  this  basis  is  a  power- 
ful incentive  to  overcrowding,  and  j)robably  is  in  some  degree  re- 


178  Child  Welfare  in  Alabama 

sponsible  for  the  congested  conditions  in  two  institutions.  These 
amounts  vary  from  $7  a  month  in  the  case  of  the  negro  reformatory 
to  $230  a  year  for  the  highly  specialized  schools  for  the  deaf  and 
blind.  The  municipal  institutions  are  supported  by  the  city  and 
county  governments  controlling  them.  None  of  the  public  insti- 
tutions, state  or  local,  have  any  sources  of  monetary  income  other 
than  their  appropriations. 

The  fifteen  private  institutions  fall  into  three  groups  according 
to  the  sources  of  their  income.  First,  the  two  fraternal  orphanages 
are  supported  by  levies  upon  their  respective  orders.  They  receive 
in  addition  many  gifts  from  individual  lodges  and  members  of  their 
fraternities. 

Second,  the  nine  denominational  institutions  are  supported 
by  the  charity  of  members  of  their  respective  faiths.  Occasional 
gifts,  trifling  in  amount,  come  from  the  general  public.  Only  one 
appears  to  receive  governmental  aid — the  Alabama  Maternity  and 
Infants'  Home  (Catholic),  which  is  given  $50  a  month  by  the  city 
of  Mobile. 

Third,  the  inter-denominational  and  undenominational  insti- 
tutions, of  which  three  are  maintained  by  the  charity  of  the  general 
public.  A  fourth,  the  Mercy  Home  Industrial  School,  although  a 
private  corporation,  is  almost  wholly  supported  by  an  annual  ap- 
propriation from  the  state  treasury  amounting  to  $5,000. 

All  the  Alabama  child-caring  institutions  are  run  on  a  modest 
financial  scale.  Some  have  too  little  money  to  operate  as  they 
should.  One  of  the  principal  reasons  why  they  are  able  to  get  along 
as  well  as  they  do  is  that  they  operate  farms,  dairies  and  gardens. 
It  is  impossible  to  obtain  satisfactory  figures  showing  the  per  capita 
cost  of  operation  for  comparative  purposes  in  all  or  a  majority  of 
the  institutions.  This  is  because  their  systems  of  accounting  differ, 
especially  with  regard  to  repairs  and  maintenance,  because  many 
of  them  depend  in  some  degree  upon  gifts  of  goods,  and  because  of 
the  difficulty  of  estimating  the  value  of  the  produce  of  farms,  gar- 
dens and  dairies.  Some  reckon  very  carefully  the  amount  of  these 
things  in  money  but  most  do  not,  and  methods  of  estimating  prob- 
ably differ. 

By  taking  into  account  only  monetary  income,  neglecting  gifts 
in  kind,  and  garden,  field  and  dairy  products,  we  can  arrive  at  figures 
showing  fairly  well  the  amount  of  the  financial  burden  imposed 


Child-Caring  Institutions  and  Home  Finding  179 

upon  the  people  of  the  state  by  the  presence  of  each  child  in  the 
various  institutions.  In  other  words,  we  can  show  the  amount  of 
money  spent  on  each  child  monthly.  Among  the  institutions  for 
dependent  and  delinquent  children  this  ranges  from  $7  for 
one  state  school,  and  $7.50  for  one  municipal  home,  to 
about  S15  for  three  or  four  of  the  private  orphanages.  Even 
these  figures  are  not  entirely  comparable  because  of  the  varia- 
tions in  accounting  practice  to  which  allusion  has  been  made.  For 
this  reason  it  has  not  been  thought  advisable  to  tabulate  them  or  to 
compute  a  general  average  for  the  state. 

It  is  especially  important  to  notice,  however,  that  statistics  of 
money  expended  per  child,  no  matter  how  accurate,  can  show  only 
the  financial  burden  upon  the  community.  They  cannot  tell  much 
about  the  comparative  well-being  of  the  children.  This  is  because 
the  gifts  of  goods  and  the  milk,  vegetables  and  fruits  raised  on  the 
place  benefit  the  child  as  much  as  cash  expenditure.  The  fact  is  thst 
nearly  all  the  boys  and  girls  in  Alabama  institutions  are  partly  self- 
supporting  by  reason  of  their  own  work  in  dairy,  farm,  garden  and 
cannery.  This  is  so  interesting  and  important  from  other  viewpoints 
than  the  financial  as  to  receive  separate  treatment  later. 

Plant  and  Equipment 

The  child-caring  institutions  of  Alabama  are  as  a  group  better 
than  the  buildings  in  which  they  are  housed.  Several  of  the  struc- 
tures date  from  half  a  century  or  more  ago.  These  oldest  buildings 
are  of  sounder  construction  than  many  of  the  recent  ones,  but  in 
most  cases  do  not  come  up  to  present-day  standards  as  to  light  and 
ventilation.  The  poorest  of  all  are  some  not  long  since  erected, 
but  of  such  poor  material  and  makeshift  design  that  they  are  literally 
wearing  out. 

It  cannot  be  said  that  cither  the  state  or  the  private  institutions 
show  as  a  class  any  marked  superiority  to  the  other.  There  is  a 
marked  gradation  among  the  institutions  both  public  and  private, 
from  a  high  degree  of  excellence  to  extreme  poverty  of  plant  and 
equipment.  Those  poorest  in  material  property  are  large  and  care 
for  a  great  proportion  of  the  defective,  dependent  and  delinquent 
children  of  the  state,  but  under  serious  physical  limitations. 

The  best  institutions  are  small  and  limited  in  their  direct  ser- 


180  Child  Welfare  in  Alabama 

vice,  but  of  great  value  as  setters  of  standards.  Only  one  is  on  the 
cottage  plan,  the  (Episcopal)  Church  Home  for  Orphans,  at  Spring- 
hill.  But  the  Mercy  Home  Industrial  School  is  so  small  that  it  does 
not  exceed  the  proper  size  of  a  cottage  unit.  Whether  its  future 
growth  will  be  on  the  congregate  or  cottage  plan  remains  to  be  seen. 
These  two  institutions  represent  substantially  the  ideal  as  to  con- 
struction and  equipment,  as  indeed  they  do  in  operation. 

Some  of  the  commonest  phases  of  inadequacy  in  equipment 
will  be  specified  in  the  discussion  of  health  and  of  education.  Space 
for  play,  and  shade  trees,  are  in  nearly  every  case  abundant.  Pla}'-- 
ground  apparatus,  courts,  and  grounds  laid  off  for  games,  are  very 
generally  lacking. 

Farms  and  Gardens 

Nearly  every  child-caring  institution  in  Alabama  has  a  garden 
large  enough  to  be  of  consequence.  Seven  have  real  farms,  four  of 
them  quite  large.  These  seven  also  have  dairies,  and  one  or  two 
others  keep  a  few  cows.  One  has  large  greenhouses.  Most  of  the 
farms  and  some  of  the  gardens  have  appropriate  space  devoted  to 
fruit  trees,  and  one  or  two  boast  extensive  orchards. 

Almost  all  were  found  to  share  the  prevailing  interest  in  the  soil 
and  its  fruits  and  in  a  few  even  the  small  childi'en  appeared  alive  to 
the  part  which  food-production  is  playing  in  the  national  effort. 
But  the  interest  in  gardening  and  farming  evidently  antedates  the 
war,  and  arises  primarily  from  local  needs.  It  would  be  difficult 
indeed,  if  not  impossible,  for  some  of  the  institutions  to  feed  their 
children  without  the  use  of  their  own  products.  The  institutions 
most  nearly  self-supporting  as  to  foodstuffs  are  the  Odd  Fellows' 
Home  and  the  negro  reformatory  at  Mt.  Meigs.  They  have  as  a 
goal  the  raising  of  all  food  consumed  by  their  residents. 

Serious  difficulties  confront  the  superintendent  of  a  child-caring 
institution  in  his  agricultural  work.  The  soil  with  which  he  has  to 
deal  is  not  always  very  good,  as  institutions  are  rarely  located  with 
primary  regard  to  the  fertility  of  their  land.  Of  all  the  fanns  only 
that  of  the  Presbyterian  Orphanage  makes  the  impression  of  especial 
natural  productiveness.  Some  have  been  greatly  improved,  how- 
ever. 

Nor  is  the  superintendent  usually  selected  for  his  ability  as  a 
farmer.    One  or  two  frankly  do  not  know  how  to  farm.    On  the  whole 


Child-Caring  Institutions  and  Home  Finding  181 

the}'  do  remarkably  well.  But  the  superintendent  has  other  duties 
more  important  or  more  pressing,  and  even  if  an  expert  farmer, 
cannot  devote  as  much  time  as  he  would  like  to  the  farm.  Some 
depend  on  a  resident  farmer.  Two  of  the  best  farms,  those  of  the 
Odd  Fellows'  Home  and  of  the  Presbyterian  Oqohanages  are  at  a 
distance  of  one  or  more  miles  from  the  main  plant.  This  is  a  very 
obvious  and  great  handicap. 

The  labor  problem  is  a  serious  one.  Most  institutions  are  too 
poor  to  employ  much  labor  and  must  depend  on  the  boys  and  girls. 
Even  those  that  can  afford  it  now  find  hired  labor  almost  unobtain- 
able. The  children  seem  to  have  risen  to  the  occasion  with  good 
spirit.  Of  course  the  institutions  with  big  boys  get  along  best,  but 
the  girls  help  to  garden  and  sometimes  to  gather  certain  crops,  and 
even  small  boys  can  in  numbers  accomplish  a  great  deal.  None  of  the 
superintendents  wish  to  sacrifice  the  education  of  their  children  in 
order  to  raise  crops,  and  none  seem  to  be  doing  it.  At  Mt.  Meigs, 
it  is  true,  the  boj^s  go  to  school  only  half  time,  but  those  in  authority 
rightly  regard  the  making  of  good  farmers  out  of  the  bo^^s  as  perhaps 
the  most  important  part  of  their  education. 

The  benefits  of  the  farm  and  garden  work  go  far  beyond  the 
mere  providing  of  foodstuffs.  Outdoor  work  is  healthful  and  prob- 
ably the  best  work  for  growing  children  to  perform.  When  done  in 
proper  surroundings  and  with  proper  limitations  it  is  altogether 
beneficial.  Children  should  not  be  deprived  of  play,  but  all  children 
are  better  off  for  having  regular  duties.  A  consciousness  of  contribu- 
ting to  their  own  self-support  is  a  fine  thing,  especially  when  it  is 
properly  brought  to  their  minds.  Farm  and  garden  work  is  educa- 
tive. To  get  the  best  educational  results  requires  conscious  effort 
and  some  skill  on  the  part  of  the  staff,  but  the  work  is  in  some  degree 
educative  whether  it  is  intended  to  be  or  not. 

Most  children  like  farm  life  and  gardens.  The  isolation  and 
lack  of  amusement  which  are  the  main  causes  of  children's  discon- 
tent on  the  farm  do  not  trouble  the  institution  children. 

Some  of  the  best  results  are  being  attained  with  small  gardens. 
The  fresh  vegetables  not  only  help  out  a  narrow  income,  but  furnish 
a  better  bill  of  fare  than  could  be  purchased.  Many  of  these  gardens 
are  very  attractive  to  look  at,  and  show  that  both  the  children  and 
and  the  superintendents  take  pride  in  them.  The  Mercy  Home 
Industrial  School  secures  educational  results  that  are  ideal  for  small 


182  Child  Welfare  in  Alabama 

space.  Many  pure-bred  varieties  of  small  fruits  and  vegetables  are 
grown.  Quantities  are  small,  but  the  culture  is  intensive,  and  is 
practically  all  done  by  the  superintendent  and  her  girls. 

Canning  and  preserving  almost  everywhere  supplement  garden- 
ing. All  the  vegetables  and  fruits  needed  for  a  balanced  diet  are 
canned  in  some  of  the  institutions  with  larger  farms.  Some  make  large 
quantities  of  syrup.  The  matrons  and  the  girls  naturally  make  the 
canning  their  principal  share  in  garden  activities.  There  are  canning 
clubs  in  some  orphanages,  and  in  others  the  girls  old  enough  belong 
to  the  club  in  the  public  school  to  which  they  go.  Some  of  the  girls 
have  won  prizes  and  trips  or  short-course  scholarships  by  their  in- 
dividual work. 

It  is  perhaps  in  their  gardens  and  farms  that  the  child-caring 
institutions  of  Alabama  are  as  a  whole  doing  best.  As  a  group  they 
are  not  distinguished  for  buildings  or  for  equipment,  for  the  pro- 
fessional training  of  their  staffs,  for  the  excellence  of  their  educational 
opportunities,  or  for  the  adequacy  of  their  income;  but  their  farm- 
ing and  gardening  and  canning  activities  should  be  a  source  of  pride, 
and  help  to  make  up  for  many  deficiencies  in  the  care  and  training 
of  their  children  that  would  otherwise  be  felt. 

Health 

The  health  of  the  children  is  on  the  whole  better  than  the 
measures  taken  to  protect  it.  This  probably  may  be  attributed  in 
largest  measure  to  their  outdoor  life. 

Ventilation  of  sleeping  rooms  is  in  more  than  half  of  the  insti- 
tutions inadequate,  for  at  least  a  part  of  the  resident  population. 
This  is  in  some  degree  the  result  of  overcrowding,  but  still  more 
largely  of  poor  building  design.  Lavatories  and  bathing  facilities 
are  rarely  adequate  or  inviting.  The  complaint  is  general  that  the 
boys  break  up  lavatories,  and  this  is  given  as  a  reason  for  not  instal- 
ling more  and  better  ones.  But  some  of  the  institutions  with  poor 
fixtures  are  careful  to  keep  separate  each  child's  hand  basin  and 
towel,  and  keep  their  children  looking  clean.  Kitchens  are  every- 
where neat  and  well  kept,  and  in  many  cases  are  models  of  cleanli- 
ness. Nearly  all  the  buildings  visited  were  screened,  but  in  many 
cases  the  wire  was  in  such  bad  condition  as  to  make  the  screening 
worthless.     Two  or  three  institutions,  otherwise  well  kept,  suffer 


Child-Caring  Institutions  and  Home  Finding  183 

from  a  plague  of  flies.  Toilet  arrangements  are  reasonably  good 
everywhere.  In  some  places,  however,  they  are  inadequate  for  the 
number  of  children. 

Physicians  are  on  call  in  all  the  institutions.  None  has  a  resi- 
dent full-time  physician.  In  a  majority  though  not  all  of  the  insti- 
tutions dental  work  is  done  for  the  children  when  the  need  becomes 
apparent.  In  nearly  all  toothbrushes  are  found  and  their  use  en- 
couraged.   There  is  no  regular  "toothbrush  drill"  anywhere. 

Preventive  work  is  being  done  in  only  two  or  three  institutions, 
in  each  case  on  the  initiative  not  of  the  institution  but  of  physicians 
in  the  town.  In  one  of  these  the  work  has  so  far  been  confined  to  a 
tuberculosis  survey.  In  another  the  children  have  been  systematically 
examined  by  general  practitioners,  dentists,  and  ear,  eye,  nose  and 
throat  specialists.  A  great  deal  of  corrective  work  has  been  done  and 
much  good  is  reported. 

Infirmary^  or  hospital  facilities  are  generally  poor  or  lacking. 
Too  often  there  are  no  isolation  facilities  at  all.  At  one  institution 
an  epidemic  of  measles  was  found  in  progress,  at  another,  one  of 
mumps.    Happily,  the  infirmary  rooms  were  usually  found  empty. 

Education 

Educational  conditions  in  the  child-caring  institutions  are  in  a 
changing  state.  This  manifests  itself  most  conspicuously  in  the  at- 
tempts to  enlarge  trade  education,  and  in  the  spreading  practice  of 
sending  children  to  the  public  schools. 

Aims  and  methods  of  instruction  necessarily  vary  with  the  type 
of  institution.  The  three  schools  for  the  deaf  and  blind  are  in  their 
primary  aspects  supplements  to  the  general  system  of  public  edu- 
cation. They  are  included  in  this  survey  because  they  deal  with 
defective  children.  They  offer  a  general  elementary  and  high  school 
course  with  a  well-developed  plan  of  vocational  education  in  addition. 
Though  handicapped  by  lack  of  funds  and  unable  to  carry  out  all 
that  they  wish  to  do  for  the  children,  they  are  far  ahead  of  the 
majority  of  public  schools. 

The  three  state  institutions  for  delinquent  children  naturally 
must  conduct  their  own  educational  work.  They,  too,  stress  voca- 
tional education,  and  with  excellent  results.  It  is  a  pity  that  they 
should  be  so  handicapped;    the  school  for  white  boys,  with  fixed 


184  Child  Welfare  in  Alabama 

income  and  rising  costs,  has  been  obliged  to  lay  off  all  bat  one  of  its 
shop  instructors  and  the  two  others  are  short  of  both  equipment 
and  teachers,  yet  they  all  manage  to  turn  out  boys  snd  girls  who  can 
do  something  for  a  living.  The  interesting  detention  homes  in  Mobile 
send  their  children  to  the  public  school,  with  encouraging  results. 

The  tendency  at  present  is  for  the  orphanages  to  send  their 
children  to  the  public  schools.  Five  have  adopted  this  plan  in  its 
entirety.  These  are  the  Episcopal,  Mercy  Home,  Methodist,  Pres- 
byterian and  Protestant  orphanages.  Three  others  send  to  the 
public  high  schools  children  of  that  grade.  All  the  superintendents 
who  have  adopted  the  plan  are  pleased  with  it.  The  reasons  which 
have  led  to  the  change  are,  they  state,  that  the  children  are  taught 
in  better  classrooms,  with  better  equipment,  are  better  graded  and 
under  a  more  numerous  if  not  more  competent  staff  of  teachers 
in  the  public  schools  than  the  orphanages  could  afford.  Most  im- 
portant of  all,  the  children  derive  considerable  social  benefit  from 
going  out  to  school.  They  like  the  change,  opportunities  to  play 
and  the  acquaintance  with  new  children.  It  helps  to  prevent  them 
from  feeling  themselves  so  "different."  When  they  march  in  column 
to  the  school,  as  in  two  cases,  this  latter  benefit  is  lost.  At  the  two 
fraternal  orphanages  graded  public  schools  are  not  near,  and  only 
the  high  school  students  are  sent  to  town.  These  orphanages  main- 
tain graded  schools  of  their  own.  That  of  the  Masonic  Home  is 
housed  in  an  excellent  modem  building  and  by  an  interesting  ex- 
change with  the  school  board  takes  some  of  the  neighborhood 
children.  This  arrangement  secures  some  of  the  social  benefits  of 
sending  the  children  to  the  public  school. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  Baptist  Orphanage,  though  handicapped 
by  the  unfortunate  loss  of  its  school  building  by  fire,  has  rejected  all 
suggestions  to  send  its  children  to  the  neighboring  public  schools, 
except  those  of  high  school  grade,  and  conducts  its  own  elementary 
school  despite  serious  physical  drawbacks.  The  three  Catholic 
institutions  maintain  their  own  graded  schools.  In  one  case  the 
children  were  a  few  years  ago  sent  out  to  the  parochial  school,  but 
the  system  was  discontinued.  The  reasons  which  the  heads  of  these 
four  institutions  give  for  keeping  the  children  in  insti-tutional  schools 
are  that  it  avoids  bringing  in  epidemics,  and  lessens  the  clothing 
bill.  The  Catholics  have  the  further  cogent  reason  that  the  Sisters 
and  Brothers  of  the  orders  conducting  the  orphanages  are  trained 


Child-Caring  Institutions  and  Home  Finding  185 

teachers  and  adequate  in  numbers  to  do  the  work  so  that  no  additional 
expense  is  caused.  The  Catholic  orphanages  follow  the  curriculum 
of  the  Catholic  parochial  schools,  the  Baptist  and  fraternal  orphanages 
that  of  the  public  schools.  The  Mercy  Home  Industrial  School  is  of 
course  not  an  orphanage  but  a  high-class  elementary  vocational 
school  for  dependent  girls. 

Personal  Care 

The  recognized  ideal  in  the  personal  care  of  children  is  that 
given  in  the  normal  home.  By  their  approximation  to  it  the  insti- 
tutions are  judged. 

The  factors  deciding  the  quality  of  care  are  chiefly  the  physical 
plant  and  equipment  already  discussed,  density  of  the  resident  popu- 
lation or  degree  of  crowding,  numerical  adequacy  of  the  staff,  sym- 
pathy, tact,  training  and  temperamental  fitness  for  the  work. 

Gradations  in  the  ph^^sical  equipment  have  been  pointed  out. 
It  is  not  an  accident  that  the  best-equipped  institutions  are  the  least 
crowded,  and  the  institutions  physically  poorest  have  the  densest 
population  in  proportion  to  their  means.  Those  with  the  highest 
standards  take  no  more  children  that  they  can  do  justice  to.  Others 
can  usually  find  a  place  for  "just  one  more." 

Staffs  are  on  the  whole  numerically  more  adequate  than  plant 
and  equipment.  Nevertheless  in  some  of  the  private  institutions 
the  staffs  seem  overworked,  and  in  two  of  the  public  institutions 
(Mt.  Meigs  and  East  Lake)  the  deficiency  is  most  marked. 

Except  in  the  schools  for  the  deaf  and  blind  the  workers  are 
not  as  a  rule  trained,  and  often  not  experienced.  In  some  cases  bene- 
fits have  apparently  come  from  this,  in  the  defiance  of  tradition  and 
breaking  of  institutional  routine.  Mistakes  must  often  be  made  on 
account  of  it,  however. 

The  men  and  women  who  are  caring  for  children  in  Alabama 
institutions  are  mostly  in  the  work  because  of  love  for  it,  and  ex- 
hibit the  personal  qualities  that  make  for  success  in  their  work. 
They  seem  with  rare  exceptions  to  be  genuinely  fond  of  children, 
and  with  a  somewhat  larger  number  of  exceptions,  to  know  how  to 
get  on  with  them.  Two  or  three  of  the  people  encountered  seemed 
temperamentally  unfitted  to  work  with  children,  however  much 
interested  they  might  be.  However,  the  acquaintance  was  too  short 
to  make  other  than  tentative  judgments. 


186  Child  Welfare  in  Alabama 

Some  institutions  show  to  even  the  casual  visitor  an  atmosphere 
of  naturalness  and  love.  A  high  degree  of  "institutionalization"  is 
fortunately  lacking  in  nearly  all.  Yet  a  few  have  an  air  of  routine, 
if  not  restraint,  that  is  obvious  to  any  observer.  There  is  little  love 
in  some  of  them;  but  in  only  one  case  did  the  children  appear  to  be 
afraid  of  any  of  those  in  authority. 

The  manners  of  the  children  are  usually  frank  and  correct  if  not 
elegant.  In  some  cases  they  rival  those  of  children  in  the  best  homes. 
The  children  in  the  larger  and  poorer  institutions  are  dressed  poorly, 
but  in  the  absence  of  a  winter  visit  one  could  not  say  inadequately. 
Rarely,  however,  do  the  children  show  the  effects  of  that  personal 
care,  individual  help  with  toilet,  conduct,  and  daily  problems,  which 
distinguishes  at  once  the  child  fortunate  enough  to  receive  good 
parental  care.  More  could  be  done  as  to  neatness  and  personal  i 
cleanliness,  in  some  of  the  large  institutions  at  least,  by  setting  better 
standards  even  without  the  personal  touch. 

When  a  Child  Leaves 

Boys  and  girls  leave  the  child-caring  institutions  in  a  number  of 
different  ways.  They  may  be  transferred  to  other  institutions. 
Maternity  homes  put  their  babies  not  otherwise  provided  for  in 
orphanages.  Orphanages  which  do  not  keep  larger  boys  usually 
place  them  in  other  orphanages.  There  is  a  good  deal  of  shifting 
going  on  all  the  time. 

The  placing  of  children  in  private  homes  by  institutions  is  a 
phase  of  home  finding  and  receives  separate  treatment  in  the  part  of 
the  report  devoted  to  that  subject. 

Many  boys  and  girls  are  taken  out  by  their  relatives,  who  have 
either  come  into  better  circumstances  or  have  developed  greater 
interest  in  the  children  as  they  grow  older.  Superintendents  think 
that  this  is  often  to  the  disadvantage  of  the  child.  If  institutions 
were  more  careful  to  secure  legal  rights  over  every  child  entering  and 
would  then  investigate  carefully  all  applications  for  withdrawal 
they  could  check  the  evil. 

The  children  who  do  not  leave  in  any  of  these  ways  in  time  reach 
the  age  when  they  must  go  out  and  make  their  way  in  the  world. 
This  age  is  usually  18,  but  no  institution  keeps  strictly  to  its  rule. 
Institutions   of  every   class  except  the  maternity  and  mimicipal 


Child'Caring  Institutions  and  Home  Finding  187 

homes  help  their  children  who  have  reached  the  age  of  discharge  to 
find  jobs,  places  to  live,  or  working  homes.  Their  policy  is  not  to 
place  the  gro\vTi  boys  and  girls  in  homes  as  members  of  the  family, 
but  as  workers,  on  a  definite  wage.  The  superintendent  of  the  Bap- 
tist Orphanage  has  a  form  of  contract  between  the  employer  and 
employe,  for  one  month;  he  has  the  boy  leaving  the  orphanage 
and  his  employer  sign  the  contract,  thus  seeing  that  the  boy  begins 
with  a  fair  and  definite  bargain.  The  orphanage  of  course  is  not  a 
party  to  the  contract. 

Placing  of  this  sort  is  rather  job-  and  residence-finding  than 
home  finding.  It  is  a  desirable  and  necessary  adjunct  of  the  insti- 
tutions' work.  No  orphanage,  school  or  reformatory  should  launch 
an  adolescent  boy  or  girl  on  the  world  without  giving  all  the  advice 
and  help  possible.  There  is  little  or  no  later  supervision  of  those  who 
leave,  or  record  of  their  careers.  The  institutions  depend  on  the 
boys  and  girls  themselves  to  keep  in  touch  with  them.  This  serves  in 
many  cases,  but  it  is  likely  that  the  very  ones  who  most  need  guidance 
drop  out  of  sight.    No  institution  of  any  class  maintains  a  field  agent. 

The  lack  of  a  parole  officer,  in  the  case  of  the  reformatories,  is 
peculiarly  serious.  They  are  given  legal  custody  of  every  boy  and 
girl  committed  to  them  until  the  age  of  21.  As  they  almost  in- 
variably parole  them  before  reaching  that  age  it  is  evident  that  the 
supervision  of  the  paroled  children  is  of  the  greatest  importance  to 
the  community.  At  present  there  is  no  one  to  carry  on  outside  the 
institution  the  good  work  which  has  been  started  within  it. 

Co-operation 

Good-will  exists  in  abundance  among  the  different  child-caring 
agencies,  but  co-operative  effort  is  as  yet  but  little  developed. 

The  superintendent  of  one  of  the  orphanages  has  proposed  an 
association  of  all  workers  in  Alabama  child-caring  institutions.  The 
plan  seems  likely  to  succeed,  and  the  meetings  of  such  an  association 
should  be  of  very  great  service  to  the  welfare  of  children  in  Alabama. 
To  meet  the  need  most  fully  such  an  association  should  affiliate  with 
all  other  persons  in  the  state  working  for  children,  especially  the 
juvenile  court  officers  and  the  people  who  arc  finding  homes  for 
children. 

Mutual  relations  between  the  institutions  and  the  neighboring 


188  Child  Welfare  in  Alabama 

communities  are  even  less  advanced,  but  contain  promise  of  useful- 
ness. The  movement,  already  discussed,  which  has  resulted  in  the 
sending  of  many  orphanage  children  to  the  public  schools  has  so  far 
done  more  than  anything  else  to  bring  together  the  institutions 
and  the  neighbor  public.  A  few  institutions  occasionally  let  some  of 
their  boys  work  for  neighbors,  partly  for  the  purpose  of  gaining  their 
good  will.  The  practice  has  obvious  dangers,  though  no  bad  result 
is  so  far  apparent. 

Neighbors  can  do  a  great  deal  to  help  the  institution  children 
enjoy  a  normal  community  life,  and  to  give  them  an  occasional  taste 
of  real  home  life.  An  example  of  excellent  work  of  this  kind  is  that 
of  the  Scottish  Rite  Masons  of  Mobile.  The  members  take  children 
from  two  of  the  orphanages  in  the  city  to  their  homes  for  week-end 
visits.  The  children  go  in  rotation  and  are  not  selected  by  their 
hosts — it  should  be  observed  that  this  is  an  essential  condition  of 
success  for  such  a  movement.  They  are  treated  simply  as  ordinary 
visitors,  sharing  the  daily  routine  and  diversions  of  the  family. 

The  same  lodges  have  also  undertaken  through  their  members 
in  the  surrounding  country  to  find  homes  near  the  city  which  will 
take  children  for  a  month  in  summer.  Both  of  these  forms  of  co-opera- 
tion are  good  in  themselves,  but  they  have  the  further  advantage  of 
leading  naturally  to  the  finding  of  permanent  homes  for  some  of  the 
children.  In  this  aspect  we  shall  have  occasion  to  allude  to  them 
later. 

Investigation 

From  the  larger  viewpoint  the  gaining  of  knowledge  regarding 
causes  of  child  defectiveness,  dependency  and  delinquency,  is  one 
of  the  most  important  tasks  of  any  institution  caring  for  children. 
The  state  is  even  more  deeply  concerned  to  reduce  the  number  of 
children  in  institutions  for  the  future  than  to  see  that  those  now  in 
them  are  well  cared  for.  Such  a  reduction  can  come  only  from  greater 
knowledge  of  causes.  Here  is  the  greatest  possible  opportunity  for 
constructive  work  on  the  part  of  those  in  charge  of  the  institutions. 

It  must  be  confessed  that  with  regard  to  investigation  of  funda- 
mental causes  little  has  yet  been  accomplished  by  Alabama  insti- 
tutions. This  is  the  least  developed  part  of  their  work.  The  reasons 
are  many  and  easy  to  comprehend.  First  is  a  deficiency  of  income. 
The  superintendents  properly  feel  that  they  must  feed  and  clothe 


Child-Caring  Institutions  and  Home  Finding  189 

and  otherwise  care  for  their  children  first  of  all.  But  since  more 
children  are  always  awaiting  admittance  it  never  gets  any  farther. 
The  backw^ardness  of  social  prevention  in  the  state  keeps  the  insti- 
tutions from  being  able  to  contribute  knowledge  to  the  cause  of  social 
prevention,  thus  completing  a  vicious  circle. 

The  relative  scarcity  of  help  in  some  of  the  institutions  is  merely 
a  partial  reflex  of  the  financial  limitation.  But  the  lack  of  training 
of  the  superintendents  and  staffs  is  another  and  independent  cause 
of  backwardness  in  social  investigation.  The  state  hospitals  for  the 
insane  are  no  more  liberally  supported  than  are  many  of  the  child- 
caring  institutions,  but  they  keep  an  admirable  system  of  records 
and  are  able  to  trace  in  large  degree  the  causes  of  insanity  in  the  state 
and  to  furnish  data  for  guiding  the  fight  on  that  and  other  forms  of 
social  abnormality.  The  reason  for  this  work  is  chiefly  the  superior 
knowledge  and  training  of  the  head  of  the  hospitals  and  their  staffs. 
Some  of  the  heads  of  child-caring  institutions  see  and  lament  the 
deficiency  of  their  investigative  work,  but  some  who  see  it  and  could 
perhaps  financially  afford  to  do  more  do  not  know  how.  Others 
unfortunately  do  not  see  the  need  at  all.  It  was  obvious  that  some 
were  greatly  puzzled  to  explain  to  themselves  the  reasons  for  the  pres- 
ent study.  After  being  convinced  that  it  did  not  arise  out  of  mere 
curiosity  they  kept  asking  questions  and  looking  in  a  way  that  indi- 
cated search  for  a  hidden  motive.  Their  most  common  gness  seemed 
to  be  that  the  visitor  really  represented  people  who  had  funds  to 
give  to  charity.  They  simply  could  not  conceive  of  an  interest  in 
child  welfare  which  went  beyond  the  care  of  such  children  as  were 
brought  to  their  doors. 

The  records  of  the  institutions  of  all  classes  as  to  their  children 
rarely  go  beyond  an  entry  of  from  two  to  four  lines  in  a  big  book. 
The  name  of  the  child  and  previous  residence,  the  parents  if  living, 
and  the  names  of  the  judge  committing  or  persons  sending  the 
children  are  about  all.  In  the  reformatories  the  cause  of  commitment 
is  generally  so  broad  as  to  mean  no  more  than  delinquency.  It  may 
fairly  be  said  that  no  large  institution  has  an  adequate  record  of  the 
social  circumstances  under  which  the  child  lived  and  which  led  up 
to  the  immediate  occasion  of  his  entry.  One  institution  has  devised 
a  good  set  of  record  forms,  the  best  seen  in  the  state,  on  the  card 
index  plan,  and  seemed  to  constitute  an  exception.  But  on  inquiry 
il  appeared  that  all  the  information  on  the  entry  card  came  from  the 


190  Child  Welfare  in  Alabama 

children  themselves — small  negro  boys,  largely  illiterate.  More- 
over, since  the  wartime  shortage  of  farm  help  had  called  the  super- 
intendent and  his  office  to  necessary  outdoor  work  the  filling  of  the 
card  records  had  been  largely  neglected. 

Lines  of  Development 

The  system  of  child-caring  institutions  in  Alabama  contains 
few  gaps.  One  of  these  is  indeed  so  serious  as  to  demand  special 
treatment.  It  is  the  absence  of  any  provision  for  the  care  of 
feeble-minded  children.  The  immediate  establishment  of  such  an 
institution  is  one  of  the  two  legislative  recommendations  made  at  the 
close  of  this  part  of  the  report. 

With  the  exception  of  some  provision  for  the  feeble-minded  the 
system  of  institutions  is  fairly  complete.  One  further  gap  will  proba- 
bly be  filled  later — the  lack  of  a  place  for  delinquent  negro  girls.  In 
every  urban  community  at  least  there  are  young  negro  girls  who  do 
not  work  or  stay  at  home,  and  who  constitute  a  serious  moral  hazard 
and  source  of  physical  contagion  to  the  youth  of  the  neighborhood. 
There  is  at  present  nothing  to  do  with  such  girls  except  to  send  them 
to  jail  or  "bind  them  out"  to  someone.  Neither  plan  works  well. 
When  the  desirability  of  institutional  confinement  and  care  of  these 
negro  girls  is  better  apprehended  a  reformatory  for  them  will  be 
established. 

It  is  to  be  observed  that  there  are  no  child-caring  institutions 
in  north  Alabama.  This  does  not  mean  that  the  children  of  that 
portion  of  the  state  are  without  provision,  of  course.  It  is  mainly 
due  to  the  fact  that  nearly  all  the  institutions  have  been  located  for 
convenience  in  or  about  the  three  large  cities  of  Birmingham,  Mont- 
gomery and  Mobile.  Except  for  the  municiapl  institutions,  all  re- 
ceive children  from  any  part  of  the  state  on  equal  terms.  Any  social 
advantage  that  a  community  enjoys  from  having  an  orphanage  near 
at  hand  is  counterbalanced  by  the  suggestion  it  offers  to  good-for- 
nothing  relatives  to  put  into  them  children  who  could  and  should  be 
kept  at  home.  Any  orphanage  head  can  give  instances  of  this.  The 
establishment  of  new  institutions  for  geographical  reasons  is  fortu- 
nately as  improbable  as  it  is  undesirable. 

Ampler  financial  support  is  one  of  the  most  pressing  needs  of 
nearly  all  the  institutions.     With  the  exceptions  already  noticed, 


Child-Caring  Institutions  and  Home  Finding  191 

enough  institutions  have  been  estabHshed.  It  is  needful  that  the 
good  people  of  Alabama  give  them  a  larger  measure  of  pecuniary  aid. 

With  larger  funds  will  come  not  only  better  maintenance,  but 
the  additional  buildings  and  equipment  so  much  needed  by  some. 
It  is  unnecessary  and  undesirable  that  Alabama  should  ever  rival 
the  imposing  structures  which  mark  institutional  development  in 
some  states,  but  buildings  should  be  adequate,  hygienic  and  sightly. 
As  far  as  possible  new  constmction  should  be  on  the  cottage  plan. 
It  costs  a  little  more  to  operate  but  it  is  worth  it,  and  nothing  would 
so  conduce  to  the  improvement  in  personal  care  which  is  one  of  the 
most  hoped-for  developments  of  the  future. 

Some  of  the  institutions  will  in  time  to  come  move  to  the  coun- 
try, where  more  room  is  afforded  for  building  development,  for  play 
grounds,  for  orchards,  gardens  and  field  crops.  The  few  that  are 
now  backward  in  agricultural  affairs  will  undoubtedly  copy  those 
more  advanced.  At  the  same  time  there  should  be  a  clear  recognition 
of  the  limitations  of  institutional  fanning.  Orphanages,  for  instance, 
should  all  conduct  farms,  but  no  one  should  expect  them  to  be  run 
without  the  aid  of  adult  hired  labor.  The  education,  reasonable  play, 
and  strength  of  the  children  should  not  be  sacrificed  to  crop  produc- 
tion. More  cows  are  needed ;  few  superintendents  say  that  they  have 
enough  milk.  Opportunity  of  membership  in  canning  clubs  should 
be  open  to  all  institution  girls. 

In  the  field  of  health  the  principal  progress  will  be  in  the  adoption 
of  preventive  measures.  Matrons  will  not  wait  for  a  toothache  to 
send  the  children  to  a  dentist;  there  will  be  periodical  examination 
by  a  competent  dental  surgeon  of  all  the  children's  mouths.  It  will 
not  be  necessary  for  a  child  to  fail  in  his  grade  in  order  to  start  an 
inquiry  as  to  whether  he  has  adenoids;  at  least  once  a  year  all  the 
children  will  be  examined  by  a  .speciahst.  This  work  need  not  al- 
together wait  on  larger  funds.  When  the  superintendents  and 
matrons  show  greater  interest  in  it  they  will  find  ready  co-operation 
on  the  part  of  the  medical  profession  in  all  its  branches.  If  funds  are 
not  now  forthcoming  it  is  in  some  degree  at  least  because  funds  for 
this  specific  purpose  have  not  been  asked  for.  Medical  care  is  an 
object  which  appeals  to  public  benevolence  and  to  governing  bodies 
with  a  very  great  force  when  its  need  is  shown. 

Educational  progress  will  largely  be  dependent  on  the  general 
advance  of  the  public  schools  now  that  so  many  institutions  send 


192  Child  Welfare  in  Alabama 

their  children  to  them.  For  those  who  can  adopt  this  policy  and 
have  not  done  so  it  would  seem  to  be  the  best  step  to  take.  For  those 
that  cannot  send  out  their  children  the  principal  tasks  are  to  get  more 
teachers  so  that  each  will  have  fewer  grades,  to  get  better  classrooms, 
more  sanitary  and  modem,  and  to  continue  the  development  of  trade 
education. 

Better  after-care  of  children  who  leave  institutions  is  one  of  the 
goals  to  work  for  in  Alabama.  Every  institution  should  have  a  field 
agent  or  secure  the  assistance  of  some  agency  that  can  provide  this 
service.  The  need  of  parole  officers  for  the  reformatories  is  particu- 
larly urgent. 

The  growth  of  the  co-operative  idea,  among  the  institutions  and 
between  them  and  the  public,  can  confidently  be  predicted  and  will 
add  greatly  to  the  well-being  of  the  children.  Greater  interchange 
of  ideas  among  the  workers,  through  the  proposed  association  or 
some  similar  one,  perhaps  in  connection  with  the  Alabama  Socio- 
logical Society,  would  be  of  immediate  value.  It  is  hoped  that  this 
study  will  serv^e  in  some  degree  to  that  end.  The  spread  of  the  week- 
end visit  and  summer  vacation  idea  for  orphans  ought  to  be  assured. 

But  the  most  powerful  single  agency  for  state-wide  co-operation 
would  be  a  state  board  of  social  welfare.  The  need  of  such  a  body  is 
so  great  and  so  pressing  that  its  creation  has  been  made  the  second 
of  the  two  legislative  recommendations  herein  offered. 

Looking  at  the  child-caring  institutions  of  Alabama  as  a  whole 
we  may  be  glad  that  two  distinct  tendencies  have  appeared  among 
them.  One  or  two  have  set  for  themselves  high  ideals  and  have  come 
well  up  to  them,  taking  only  so  many  children  as  will  permit  care  in 
accord  with  their  standards.  Several  crowd  to  the  last  degree,  and 
refuse  scarcely  any  applicant ;  they  cannot  maintain  the  high  stand- 
ards of  the  best  institutions,  but  find  a  place,  and  some  sort  of  care, 
for  children  that  need  it.  Each  of  these  types  renders  its  peculiar 
service.  The  one  shows  the  people  of  Alabama  what  is  proper  and 
possible  in  the  care  of  unfortunate  children,  the  other  makes  tempo- 
rary provision  for  those  who  would  otherwise  be  still  worse  off.  The 
majority  of  the  institutions  lie  between  these  two  well-marked  types. 

The  greatest  advances  in  the  near  future  will  be  made  by  grad- 
ing up  all  the  institutions  to  the  standard  of  the  best  existing  ones. 
When  the  supporters  of  the  poorer  ones  are  fully  shown  in  the  con- 
crete the  need  for  progress,  it  will  be  easier  to  get  the  funds  necessary 


Child-Caring  Institutions  and  Home  Finding  193 

to  bring  it  about.  Meanwhile,  it  is  the  incessant  increase  in  the  num- 
ber of  defective,  dependent  and  delinquent  children  which  affords  the 
greatest  obstacle  to  progress  by  diverting  all  new  funds  to  the  same 
indifferent  care  of  greater  numbers  of  children. 

The  ways  of  meeting  and  checking  the  increase  of  socially  ab- 
normal children  lie  largely  outside  the  field  of  this  particular  study. 
The  improvement  of  general  education,  the  bettering  of  public  health, 
and  the  creation  of  a  state  and  local  organization  for  social  welfare 
are  three  of  the  chief  preventive  measures,  treated  in  other  chapters 
of  this  report.  A  better  enforcement  of  existing  laws  is  dependent  on 
the  creation  of  the  administrative  organization  mentioned.  It  can 
accomplish  much  by  requiring  relatives  to  support  children  who 
would  otherwise  be  in  institutions.  Revision  and  better  adminis- 
tration of  the  marriage  and  divorce  laws  would  contribute  to  the 
same  end.  One  of  the  greatest  preventive  measures  is  provision 
for  the  feeble-minded,  which  is  herein  recommended.  In  the  mean- 
time the  best  that  can  be  done  for  the  children  who  crowd  to  the 
doors  of  the  institutions  is  to  make  more  adequate  preliminary  in- 
vestigations, in  co-operation  with  the  officers  of  the  law  everywhere, 
and  to  find  homes  in  private  families  for  as  many  children  as  possible. 
The  latter  is  of  such  interest  as  to  demand  a  special  account  in  the 
second  part  of  this  study. 

Legislative  Recommendations 

This  report  is  written  with  active  consciousness  of  the  national 
situation,  and  of  the  need  of  subordinating  matters  that  would  other- 
wise be  important  to  effectiveness  in  war.  The  only  legislative  sug- 
gestions made  are  those  that  make  for  a  practical  increase  of  the 
strength  and  solidarity  of  the  nation  at  home.  They  are  made  rather 
because  of  the  war  than  in  spite  of  it.  They  are  two:  a  state  insti- 
tution for  the  feeble-minded,  and  a  slate  board  of  social  welfare.  Reasons 
will  now  be  given  for  the  first  of  these  recommendations. 

There  is  no  provision  made  in  Alabama  for  feeble-minded 
children,  nor  any  care  of  feeble-minded  adults  or  check  upon  the 
propagation  of  weak-mindedness.  As  a  consequence  feeble-minded 
children  are  found  in  places  where  they  do  not  belong,  wlicre  they 
cannot  receive  proper  care,  and  where  they  interfere  with  the  devel- 
opment of  children  mentally  normal. 

There  are  50  children  in  almshouses  in  Alabama.     Most  of 


194  Child  Welfare  in  Alabama 

these  are  feeble-minded.*  That  is  why  they  are  there — no  one  else 
will  take  them.  A  law  forbidding  the  residence  of  children  in  alms- 
houses would  be  undesirable  and  unenforceable  unless  a  place  is  pro- 
vided for  the  feeble-minded  children.  Provide  such  a  place  and  the 
evil  of  keeping  children  in  poorhouses  will  automatically  disappear. 

There  are  a  few  children  in  the  Bryce  Hospital  for  the  insane. 
The  law  permits  the  sending  to  that  institution  of  only  those  persons 
who  on  account  of  their  mental  condition  are  a  danger  to  the  com- 
munity. It  is  doubtless  stretched  sometimes  in  order  to  provide 
for  feeble-minded  children  for  whom  there  is  no  other  place. 
Obviously  an  insane  hospital  is  not  a  fit  home  for  them.  This  diffi- 
culty will  be  remedied  at  once  by  the  provision  of  an  institution 
especially  for  their  care. 

A  large  number  of  feeble-minded  children  are  now  in  the  child- 
caring  institutions  of  the  state.  Few  were  found  without  any.  In 
the  absence  of  proper  mental  testing  anywhere  it  is  impossible  to 
offer  accurate  statistics.  Many  of  the  children,  however,  are  of  so 
low  a  mental  grade  as  to  make  plain  their  deficiency  to  the  writer 
upon  his  visits.  Superintendents  and  members  of  the  institutional 
staffs  pointed  out  or  mentioned  others.  At  a  few  institutions  those 
in  charge  seemed  never  to  have  thought  of  the  matter.  Others  spoke 
of  it  as  their  most  difficult  problem.  The  latter  probably  exaggerated 
the  number  of  deficient  children  under  their  care.  Probably  many 
are  simply  retarded  by  bad  feeding,  disease,  ill  treatment,  neglected 
education  and  poor  home  care  in  general.  A  conservative  reckon- 
ing is  that  not  fewer  than  40  mentally  defective  children  are  now 
in  the  orphanages  of  the  state.  It  is  worthy  of  emphasis  that  this 
is  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  none  of  them  willingly  or  knowingly  ac- 
cept a  feeble-minded  child.  One  superintendent  displayed  the  form 
of  medical  certificate  required  by  him  with  every  application,  signed 
in  each  case  by  a  practising  physician  and  attesting  that  the  child 
is  normal,  physically  and  mentally.  Despite  this  precaution,  the 
superintendent  stated  that  he  often  suspected  mental  weakness 
in  new  arrivals,  had  such  cases  examined  by  local  physicians,  and 
rejected  them  on  confirmation  of  his  suspicions.  None  the  less,  he 
pointed  out  five  feeble-minded  children  then  in  the  institution, 
some  of  them  of  imbecile  grade. 


*  Information  furnished  by  the  Child  Labor  Division  of  the  State  Health 
Department. 


Child-Caring  Institutions  and  Home  Finding  195 

The  residence  of  these  feeble-minded  children  in  orphanages  is 
bad  for  them  and  unfair  to  the  other  children.  There  is  no  way  to 
prevent  it  at  present,  because  there  is  in  the  state  no  place  equipped 
for  making  and  recording  scientific  tests  for  weak-mindedness,  and 
no  person  skilled  and  habituated  to  making  them.  Furthermore, 
once  in  an  orphanage  there  is  no  way  to  get  such  a  child  out.  There 
would  be  no  place  for  one  but  the  street.  For  this  reason  there  are 
three  imbecile  women  past  30  years  of  age,  seen  by  the  writer, 
who  have  grown  up  in  Alabama  orphanages  and  still  reside  in  them, 
among  the  little  children.  No  superintendent  or  board  has  had  the 
heart  to  throw  them  out,  though  the  undesirability  of  their  remaining 
is  fully  recognized. 

The  state  schools  for  the  deaf  and  blind  are  for  children  mentally 
normal,  and  exclude  or  send  away  those  who  do  not  come  up  to 
standard — this  is  proper.  The  reformatories,  however,  cannot 
exclude  the  subnormal  children,  and  the  head  of  the  girls'  reformatory 
estimated  the  proportion  of  subnormal  girls  among  those  in  her  charge 
at  two-thirds  of  the  whole.  Had  they  been  placed  at  the  proper  age 
in  an  institution  for  the  feeble-minded  they  would  not  have  come  to 
grief.  Here  is  the  most  tangible  and  practical  way  of  reducing  the 
number  of  the  unfortunate  girls  that  overrun  all  provision  now  made 
for  them  in  the  state. 

Mentally  deficient  children  cannot  be  and  should  not  be  placed  in 
private  homes.  Only  a  segregated  life  is  practicable  for  their  proper 
care.  They  should  not  even  remain  in  their  own  homes  unless  their 
parents  have  no  normal  children  and  are  wealthy  enough  to  provide 
specially  trained  teachers  for  the  unfortunates.  It  will  be  amply 
apparent  to  the  reader  of  this  report  that  real  home  care  is  infinitely 
to  be  preferred  to  institutional  care  in  the  case  of  all  physically  and 
mentally  nomial  children.  Even  the  crippled  child  had  better  re- 
main at  home  except  while  undergoing  corrective  surgical  treatment. 
But  the  mental  defective  is  in  a  class  apart,  and  must  receive  special 
handling.  At  home  he  is  a  discouragement  to  parents,  a  blight  to 
the  normal  children  if  there  are  any,  and  without  hope  of  develop- 
ment himself. 

A  state  school  for  feeble-minded  childreti  sJwiild  at  once  be 
established,  to  which  all  such  children  should  be  transferred  from  the 
almshouses  and  oqjhanages.  It  should  also  invite  and  encourage 
parents  of  feeble-minded  children  now  living  at  home  to  send  them 


196  Child  Welfare  in  Alabama 

to  its  skilled  care  and  training.  By  so  doing  it  can  save  many  from 
going  to  reformatories  in  later  years. 

In  conjunction  with  the  school  for  the  feeble-minded  should  be 
established  a  home  for  the  custodial  care  of  feeble-minded  women. 
In  it  all  such  women  should  be  kept  during  the  entire  child- 
bearing  period.  Thus  can  the  stream  of  degeneracy  be  checked  at 
its  source.  It  is  an  established  and  well-known  fact  that  nearly 
all  feeble-mindedness  in  children  can  be  traced  to  feeble-minded 
parentage.  Of  parents  who  are  both  feeble-minded  all  children  are 
feeble-minded;  where  only  one  parent  is  of  weak  mind  the  great 
majority  of  the  children  are  feeble-minded.  Other  defects  are 
closely  associated  with  this  one.  It  is  not  so  necessary  to  confine  the 
half-witted  men ;  control  of  the  women  is  more  urgent.  For  their  own 
protection  it  is  necessary,  and  for  maintaining  the  strength  of  the 
state  in  peace  and  war  it  is  still  more  necessary. 

Girls  woiild  be  transferred  from  the  school  to  the  custodial  in- 
stitution at  the  proper  age.  Under  trained  instructors  the  feeble- 
minded are  capable  of  considerable  progress  in  self-help  and  simple 
industrial  tasks.  It  seems  most  desirable  that  the  school  and  custo- 
dial home  be  established  on  the  extensive  lands  of  the  Bryce  Hospital, 
and  under  the  supervision  of  its  head.  The  three  institutions  would 
be  separate  units  but  in  convenient  proximity  and  federated,  as  it 
were.  This  would  be  the  least  expensive  plan,  and  presents  distinct 
advantages  of  its  own. 

This  plan  should  provide  for  expert  testing  of  all  children  now  in 
the  institutions,  public  and  private,  and  for  the  furnishing  of  such  tests 
to  parents  on  request.  The  proximity  of  the  University  of  Alabama  to 
the  suggested  site  of  the  new  institution  offers  important  possibilities 
of  co-operation  with  the  department  of  psychology  of  the  university. 
The  state  board  of  social  welfare  about  to  be  discussed  should 
assist  in  carrying  out  mental  testing  of  children  in  the  state  at  large. 

The  second  imperative  need  disclosed  by  our  study  of  the  child- 
caring  institutions  is  that  of  a  state  board  of  charities,  or  as  the 
writer  would  prefer  to  name  it,  a  State  Board  of  Social  Welfare. 
This  board  should  have  as  one  of  its  departments  a  Division  of  Child 
Welfare.  It  is  suggested  that  the  board  be  of  moderate  size  and 
unpaid,  and  it  is  essential  that  it  employ  as  executive  secretary  and 
as  head  of  the  child  welfare  division  trained  social  workers,  who 
being  employees  strictly,  need  not  be  residents  of  the  state. 


Child-Caring  Institutions  and  Home  Finding  197 

The  board  of  social  welfare,  through  its  child  welfare  division, 
would  have  general  supervision  and  control  over  all  state  and  muni- 
cipal child-caring  institutions,  and  the  power  to  visit  and  require 
annual  reports  of  all  private  institutions.  All  new  institutions 
should  be  compelled  to  secure  from  it  a  license  before  beginning  to 
operate. 

It  would  furnish  a  clearing  house  of  information  for  all  child 
welfare  workers,  and  gi-adually  lead  to  a  standardization  of  the 
existing  institutions.  By  prescribing  the  form  of  report  from  all 
institutions  and  publishing  these  reports  under  a  single  cover  it 
would  render  immediately  available  to  all  parties  interested  the 
prime  facts  regarding  institutional  conditions  in  the  state. 

PART  II.— HOME   FINDING 

No  matter  how  high  the  development  of  child-caring  institu- 
tions, the  child  is  best  off  in  a  home.  If  he  has  been  so  unfortunate 
as  to  be  deprived  of  his  own,  then  his  chances  of  happiness  and  of 
proper  preparation  for  a  normal  adult  life  are  next  best  in  a  foster 
home.  A  good  institution  may  indeed  be  better  than  a  bad  home; 
but  the  important  fact  is  that  as  a  place  for  a  child,  a  good  home  is 
better  than  the  best  institution.  The  finding  of  foster  homes  for 
homeless  children  becomes  therefore  a  matter  of  concern  to  the  state. 

Mentally  defective  children  should  never  be  placed  in  homes, 
physically  defective  ones  but  rarely.  Delinquents  too  are  not  or- 
dinarily placeable,  but  small  boys  form  an  exception.  Dependent 
children  in  a  majority  of  cases  can  and  should  be  placed  in  homes. 
For  reasons  which  will  later  become  clear,  it  is  not  practicable  to 
give  figures  as  to  the  number  of  children  for  whom  homes  have  been 
found  in  Alabama  during  the  past  year.  The  most  careful  ap])roxi- 
mation  possible  is  that  at  least  as  many  dependent  children  are  an- 
nually placed  in  homes  as  in  institutions. 

Interest  in  home  finding  is  just  beginning  to  be  largely  fell  in 
Alabama,  and  indications  are  that  the  work  will  in  the  future  not 
only  be  done  on  a  greater  scale  but  far  better  done.  Even  of  the  de- 
pendent children  .some  are  for  personal  or  environmental  causes  not 
I)ractically  placeable.  So  institutions  of  all  the  types  will  always  be 
needed.  But  every  suitable  child  should  go  into  a  home,  and  that 
means  many  more  than  are  now  going. 


198  Child  Welfare  in  Alabama 

Legal  Status 

There  are  three  legal  phases  of  home  finding  in  Alabama, 
namely,  apprenticeship,  adoption,  and  placement.  Apprenticeship 
survives  by  virtue  of  an  old  statute  which  allows  probate  judges 
to  bind  out  dependent  or  delinquent  children  to  masters  until  they 
reach  the  age  of  21.  It  seems  to  be  rarely  employed  and  to  possess 
no  particular  advantages  imder  present  conditions,  and  might  well 
be  legally  abolished.     (Code  of  Alabama,  sees.  2896-2907.) 

Adoption  appears  to  have  been  originally  designed  in  the 
Alabama  law  as  a  method  of  legitimization.  It  is  independent  of  the 
custody  of  the  child  adopted.  Anyone  who  so  desires  may  legally 
adopt  any  child  by  merely  entering  the  proper  papers  at  the  probate 
office.  This  gives  the  child  adopted  the  right  to  inherit,  and,  if  he 
chooses,  to  take  the  name  of  the  person  adopting.  It  does  not  re- 
quire the  assent  or  even  the  knowledge  of  the  child  or  his  representa- 
tives, and  gives  no  rights  over  the  child.  (Code  of  Alabama, 
sec.  5202).  In  practice,  of  course,  people  adopt  children  who  are 
already  in  their  custody. 

Placing  in  homes  and  institutions  is  now  effected  by  means  of  the 
juvenile  court  laws.  There  is  a  general  act  applying  to  the  state  at 
large  and  special  laws  with  similar  provisions  have  been  enacted 
for  Jefferson  (Birmingham)  and  Mobile  counties.  These  laws  give 
to  the  juvenile  court  judges  the  fullest  powers  to  commit  dependent 
or  delinquent  children  to  institutions  or  to  the  custody  of  societies 
or  of  private  individuals.  Commitment  is  indefinite,  the  jurisdic- 
tion of  the  court  lasting  until  the  children  reach  the  age  of  21  years. 
In  view  of  the  detailed  discussion  of  the  juvenile  courts  in  another 
chapter  of  this  report  it  is  unnecessary  for  us  here  to  consider  the 
law  in  fuller  detail. 

Individual  Placing 

A  great  many  good  people  in  all  parts  of  Alabama  occasionally 
find  homes  for  children.  It  is  impossible  even  to  estimate  their 
number.  They  place  from  one  to  a  dozen  children  in  the  course  of 
two  or  three  years,  most  of  them  not  more  than  one  child  in  a  year. 
Home  finding  is  for  them  an  incident  to  other  charitable  work. 

An  example  may  be  afforded  by  the  Salvation  Army.  Their 
workers  do  not  undertake  the  reception  of  children  and  the  finding 


Child-Caring  Institutions  and  Home  Finding  199 

of  homes  for  them  as  a  special  feature  of  their  labors,  but  in  Mont- 
gomery and  Mobile  at  least  they  find  homes  for  two  or  three  children 
a  \^ear.  These  are  usually  illegitimate  infants.  The  policy  of  the 
Anny  is  to  keep  such  children  with  their  mothers,  and  it  has  provided 
a  Rescue  Home  for  them  in  Binningham.  But  occasionally  a  mother 
dies  or  for  some  other  reason  the  local  ensign  has  the  baby  on  his 
hands,  and  finds  it  a  foster  home.  Many  other  social  workers,  both 
public  officials  and  representatives  of  private  agencies,  have  like 
occasion  to  find  homes  for  infants. 

These  professional  social  workers  usually  place  children  in 
their  home  cities  or  near  by,  and  with  persons  whom  they  know. 
They  sometimes  visit  the  homes  after  placing,  though  not  regularly 
or  in  all  cases.  They  keep  no  special  records.  They  all  report  that 
they  have  more  applications  for  children,  many  times  over,  than  they 
can  fill. 

The  amateur  social  workers  are  harder  to  keep  track  of.  In 
many  towns  some  charitable  lady  habitually  finds  homes  for  both 
babies  and  older  children  when  brought  to  her.  Most  placements 
would  appear  to  be  local,  but  this  is  not  always  the  case.  These 
occasional  home  finders  have  doubtless  reheved  much  suffering  and 
in  the  absence  of  organized  home  finding  have  until  recently  filled  a 
real  need. 

Institutional  Placing 

The  orphanages  and  maternity  homes  nearly  all  find  foster  homes 
for  a  few  children,  usually  of  tender  age.  The  initiative  ordinarily 
comes  from  the  prospective  foster  parents.  The  superintendent 
may  make  a  personal  investigation  of  the  home  if  the  applicant  lives 
in  the  same  town.  If  not  he  depends  upon  the  pastor  of  the  church 
of  his  denomination,  a  member  of  his  board  of  trustees,  or  some 
other  friend  to  report  on  the  fitness  of  the  home.  Most  superinten- 
dents realize  the  deficiencies  of  this  plan;  one,  however,  regarded 
it  as  ideal.    No  institution  maintains  a  field  agent. 

When  the  would-be  foster  parents  are  acceptable  and  have 
found  a  child  that  pleases  them  the  institution  transfers  the  cus- 
tody of  the  child  to  them.  Proper  l^egal  steps  are  not  always  taken. 
Indeed  some  officials  did  not  seem  to  have  thought  about  the  matter. 
Others  are  quite  careful,  and  require  that  the  child  remain  in  his  new 
home  a  certain  period  before  the  legal  transfer  of  authority.    Insti- 


200  Child  Welfare  in  Alabama 

tutions  expect  foster  parents  to  adopt  the  children  they  place.  The 
officers  quite  generally  confuse  adoption  with  legal  custody. 

When  the  foster  home  is  nearby  the  superintendent  usually 
visits  it  after  placement.  When  it  is  at  a  distance  he  ordinarily 
assumes  that  all  is  well  unless  the  foster  parent  desires  to  send  back 
the  child.  Several  orphanage  heads  said  that  if  anything  were  wrong 
they  would  hear  about  it  from  the  local  pastor.  In  the  case  of  the 
Catholic  institutions  the  bishop  has  final  control  of  placements 
as  of  all  other  matters,  and  makes  a  practice  of  having  children 
brought  before  him  for  inspection  by  their  foster  parents,  when  he 
is  on  his  rounds.  Only  one  institution  keeps  any  record  of  placements 
other  than  a  ledger  entry. 

Some  children  are  also  placed  on  contract.  The  Methodist 
orphanage  pursues  this  policy,  and  placed  twenty-three  children 
during  the  year  ending  April  30,  1918.  The  contract  is  carefully 
drawn,  stipulates  in  detail  the  educational  and  religious  opportuni- 
ties which  must  be  offered  the  child,  and  covenants  that  he  shall  be 
cared  for  as  the  person's  "own  child,  and  not  as  a  servant."  Custody 
of  the  child  is  transferred  to  the  person  taking  it,  and  the  orphanage 
reserves  the  right  to  resume  custody  in  case  of  a  breach  of  the  con- 
tract. This  orphanage  has  in  its  application  form  a  clause  yielding 
it  permission  to  place  the  child  without  consulting  the  applicant. 
It  places  far  more  children  than  any  other  orphanage. 

True  home  finding  should  not  be  confused  with  the  procuring 
of  places  of  residence  and  situations  for  children  who  are  of  the  age 
of  leaving.  The  latter  has  already  been  treated  in  the  part  of  the 
report  dealing  with  institutions. 

The  institutions  find  homes  for  comparatively  few  children,  not 
more  than  one  or  two  a  year,  as  a  rule.  These  are  usually  infants 
or  very  small  children.  The  reasons  assigned  by  superintendents 
for  not  finding  homes  for  more  children  are  that  most  children  have 
living  relatives  who  are  willing  for  them  to  be  in  institutions  but 
not  in  foster  homes;  that  larger  children  are  hard  to  place;  that 
children  are  better  off  in  institutions;  and  that  no  more  homes  can 
be  found.  All  agreed  in  giving  the  first  reason.  Undoubtedly  more 
children  could  be  placed  if  institutions  would  be  more  careful  to 
acquire  legal  title  to  every  child  put  in  them.  The  law  is  entirely 
adequate  in  this  respect;  authorities  simply  fail  to  take  the  proper 
steps. 


Child-Caring  Institutions  and  Home  Finding  201 

Institutional  authorities  seem  to  view  in  a  friendly  manner  the 
co-operation  of  the  Alabama  Children's  Aid  Society  when  it  has  been 
offered  them.  One  orphanage  now  depends  entirely  on  the  society 
for  help  in  placing  children. 


The  Alabama  Children's  Aid  Society 

This  central  child  placing  agency  was  chartered  November  29, 
1917,  though  it  had  already  begun  its  work  on  October  first  of  that 
year.  It  took  over  in  large  degree  the  work  of  the  defunct  Alabama 
Children's  Home  Society.  Headquarters  are  in  Birmingham,  in  the 
Juvenile  Court  building,  and  the  staff  consists  of  a  state  superin- 
tendent, one  visitor  and  a  stenographer.  Between  October  1,  1917, 
and  May  31,  1918,  it  had  placed  in  family  homes  91  children,  of  whom 
49  had  been  adopted.  In  addition  the  society  had  at  the  latter  date 
one  child  in  a  family  home  at  board,  and  five  in  their  own  homes 
under  supervision.  Fifty-six  other  children  had  been  referred  to 
the  society  for  consultation  and  advice. 

The  function  of  the  society  is  to  serve  as  a  statewide  home 
finding  agency.  Its  support  comes  from  the  voluntary  contributions 
of  its  membership,  which  is  distributed  over  all  parts  of  the  state. 

Children  are  referred  to  the  society  through  various  channels. 
Upon  receiving  word  of  a  child  in  need  of  its  assistance  an  immediate 
social  investigation  is  made  of  the  child's  environment.  This  is 
done  by  a  personal  visit,  no  matter  where  the  child  may  live.  If 
it  is  decided  that  he  needs  a  new  home,  the  society  goes  before  the 
juvenile  or  probate  court  judge  of  the  child's  county,  and  secures 
the  legal  custody  of  the  child  or  has  his  case  continued  in  court  for 
ninety  days  while  a  home  is  being  found.  When  a  satisfactory  home 
is  ready  the  society  or  the  court  transfers  to  it  the  custody  of  the 
child.  Later,  if  adoption  is  desired  and  recommended  by  the  society 
it  appears  in  court  with  the  foster  parents  and  assists  in  completing 
the  process  of  adoption. 

Meanwhile  the  society  has  been  busy  with  the  work  of  securing  a 
suitable  home.  Many  people  from  time  to  time  apply  to  the  society 
for  children.  All  such  requests  are  acknowledged,  and  an  application 
blank  is  enclosed,  asking  detailed  information  regarding  the  home, 
and  references.  If  the  application  returned  is  encouraging,  the 
references  are  written  to.    In  case  their  replies  are  favorable  a  visit 


202  Child  Welfare  in  Alabama 

is  made  to  the  home.  Four  out  of  five  applicants  are  rejected  at 
some  stage  of  the  process.  Out  of  the  remainder  a  waiting  list  is 
made  up.  When  a  child  is  to  be  placed,  he  is  not  put  into  the  first 
acceptable  home,  but  the  one  most  suitable  for  him  is  selected  from 
the  society's  list. 

The  many  children  who  are  not  in  good  physical  condition  are 
put  in  hospitals  or  boarded  on  contract  in  private  homes  until  they 
are  in  health.    No  other  placing  on  contract  is  done. 

Perhaps  the  most  important  part  of  the  work  comes  after  place- 
ment. The  visitor  of  the  society  comes  to  see  the  child  in  his  new 
home  as  often  as  seems  necessary.  Proper  advice  and  help  are  given, 
and  many  failures  are  averted.  In  those  rare  cases,  however,  where  a 
new  foster  home  is  necessary  it  is  provided  in  time. 

The  records  of  the  society  are  complete,  admirably  planned 
and  kept  on  the  modern  and  business-like  loose-leaf  and  card  index 
plan. 

It  is  the  society's  desire  to  co-operate  with  private  parties  inter- 
ested in  child  welfare,  and  with  officials  of  private  and  public  chari- 
table agencies  everywhere.  The  social  worker  who  has  a  child 
thrown  on  his  hands  may  go  to  it  for  competent  assistance.  The 
society  offers  its  assistance  in  making  investigations  of  homes  and 
in  following  up  placements  to  the  institutions  of  the  state.  Some 
co-operation  has  already  begun ;  The  Episcopal  orphans'  home  and 
the  East  Lake  reformatory  in  particular  are  making  use  of  the 
society's  aid.  The  latter  institution  hopes  to  place  in  this  way  all 
its  small  dependent  boys  whose  presence  in  the  reformatory  is  so 
much  to  be  deplored.  Small  delinquent  boys  have  also  been  placed, 
with  success. 

Through  its  carefully-recorded  social  investigations  the  society 
is  gathering  a  store  of  facts  which  will  be  available  for  use  in  devising 
preventive  measures.  It  is  the  only  child-placing  agency  of  im- 
portance in  the  state  which  is  doing  so. 

Lines  of  Development 

Home  finding  in  Alabama  is  now  in  a  transition  stage  from  an 
unregulated,  spontaneous,  charitable  activity  to  one  organized  and 
co-operative.  Putting  a  child  in  a  strange  home  is  too  serious  a  busi- 
ness to  be  lightly  undertaken.    Greater  care  must  in  the  future  be 


Child-Caring  Institutions  and  Home  Finding  203 

exercised  in  investigating  prospective  homes.  No  child  should  ever 
be  put  in  a  home  until  it  has  been  visited  b}^  a  trained  social  worker. 
This  means  that  persons,  organizations  and  institutions  that  do  not 
maintain  a  field  agent  ought  not  to  place  in  any  but  local  homes 
which  they  themselves  have  visited.  If  they  wish  to  place  at  a 
distance  they  should  employ  a  trained  visitor  or  call  in  an  organiza- 
tion that  does  employ  one. 

Pastors  cannot  be  relied  on  to  report  on  homes.  They  lack 
training,  have  little  time  for  the  work  and  do  not  like  to  offend  mem- 
bers of  their  church  by  an  unfavorable  written  report  when  the 
whole  responsibility  is  put  upon  them.  A  flagrant  instance  of  delin- 
quency in  this  respect  was  brought  to  the  attention  of  the  writer  by 
a  deaconess  of  the  minister's  church.  Pastors  can  often  give  valuable 
assistance,  and  should  invariably  be  consulted,  confidentially,  by 
the  investigator.  But  no  child  should  be  entnisted  to  foster  parents 
except  on  the  responsibility  of  an  experienced  professional  social 
worker. 

Personal  visiting  of  foster  homes  after  placement  should  also 
be  invariable,  and  should  also  be  made  by  trained  workers,  for  the 
same  reasons. 

Adequate  and  complete  records  should  be  kept  and  accessibly 
filed  in  the  case  of  every  placement.  These  records  include  the 
parentage  and  history  of  the  child,  summary  of  the  investigation 
made  of  the  foster  home,  copies  or  briefs  with  citations  of  every  legal 
paper  involved  in  the  transfer,  and  memoranda  of  visits  subsequent 
to  placement. 

Every  child  should  receive  a  thorough  and  scientific  mental  and 
physical  examination  before  being  placed  in  a  home.  Finally,  home 
finding  must  increase  in  quantity  as  well  as  in  quality.  No  place- 
able  child  should  be  left  in  an  institution  or  committed  to  one.  This 
should  be  done  for  the  sake  of  the  children  who  are  not  placcable 
as  well  as  for  those  who  are.  In  this  way  can  the  congestion  of  the 
institutions  for  dependent  children  be  most  practicably  relieved,  and 
better  care  attained.  All  of  these  things  must  and  will  come  with 
the  growth  of  public  interest  in  the  welfare  of  children  and  the 
spread  of  scientific  information  about  it. 

One  phase  of  the  future  development  of  home  finding  is  of  such 
pressing  importance  as  to  merit  separate  treatment,  and  the  sug- 
gestion of  legislative  action. 


204  Child  Welfare  in  Alabama 

Legislative  Recommendation 

The  State  Board  of  Social  Welfare  with  its  Division  of  Child 
Welfare,  already  suggested  in  the  part  of  the  report  dealing  with 
institutions,  is  equally  to  be  desired  from  the  viewpoint  of  home 
finding.  It  should  receive  the  authority  usually  given  to  such 
boards  or  to  state  boards  of  children's  guardians.  This  includes  a 
general  supervision  of  child  placing  in  the  state.  Specifically,  the 
board,  through  its  division  of  child  welfare,  should  require  and 
publish  reports  on  a  prescribed  form  from  every  individual,  organiza- 
tion or  institution  in  Alabama  that  finds  homes  for  children.  It 
should  co-operate  with  all  such  persons  and  bodies  and  with  local 
public  authorities,  furnishing  whatever  information  may  be  at  its 
command,  and  bringing  the  different  agencies  in  touch  with  one 
another.  It  should  be  the  concrete  expression  of  the  interest  and 
authority  of  the  state  regarding  the  finding  of  homes  for  its  un- 
fortunate children. 


RECREATION 
Gladys  M.  Gleason 

National  Child  Labor  Committee 

The  slow  growth  of  recreation,  especiahy  in  the  rural  districts 
of  Alabama,  may  be  largely  attributed  to  a  tendency  which  still 
persists  in  many  localities  to  cling  to  the  disciplinary  idea  of  educa- 
tion. With  the  idea  of  discipline  predominant  it  is  not  difficult  to 
understand  why  play,  especially  organized  play,  has  not  been  a 
more  important  factor  in  the  educational  system  of  the  state. 
The  lack  of  municipal  funds  has  also  been  a  serious  obstacle  in 
carrying  out  experiments,  and  there  exists  at  the  present  time  little 
tangible  evidence  of  the  development  of  the  community  spirit. 
Gradually,  however,  through  the  effort  of  the  various  educational 
agencies  the  doctrine  of  directed  recreation  is  being  spread  and  in 
some  cases  with  very  gratifying  results.  It  appears  here  and  there 
in  sporadic  instances,  a  municipal  playground,  a  county  recreation 
league,  being  illustrative  of  its  growth. 

Perhaps  the  most  significant  instance  of  the  recognition  of  the 
place  of  recreation  in  the  daily  life  of  both  children  and  adults  is  the 
attention  which  the  industrial  world  is  giving  to  the  problem.  The 
big  industries  of  the  state  are  beginning  to  realize  that  well  cared 
for  and  contented  employees  mean  efficiency  and  in  all  cases  the 
money  spent  in  improving  their  living  and  social  conditions  has 
proven  an  excellent  investment.  The  community  centers  estab- 
lished by  the  Tennessee  Coal,  Iron  and  Railroad  Company  are 
splendid  examples  of  what  may  be  achieved  along  this  line.  Ex- 
cellent schools  with  splendid  equipment  for  physical  training  have 
been  established;  there  are  community  houses  where  all  sorts  of 
community  meetings  and  entertainments  are  held,  school  gardens 
and  facilities  for  every  form  of  athletics;  exhibits  of  academic  and 
kindergarten  work,  cooking,  sewing  and  Red  Cross  work  are  regu- 
larly held;  and  an  annual  recreation  exhibition  comprising  fonnal 
field  drills,  athletic  contests  and  a  pageant  arc  held  in  which  each 
community  center  participates.     Other  industrial  plants  in  various 

205 


206  Child  Welfare  in  Alabama 

parts  of  the  state  have  also  undertaken  this  community  work, 
although  on  not  quite  such  an  extended  scale ;  this  effort  reaches  only 
the  families  of  emplo^^ees  and  includes  only  a  small  percentage  of  the 
population  of  the  state,  but  it  forms  a  nucleus  around  which  a  state- 
wide recreational  system  may  in  time  be  built. 

The  State  Department  of  Education  has  endeavored  to  place 
the  subject  before  the  eyes  of  the  people  and  to  awaken  in  them  a 
sense  of  responsibility  towards  the  children  of  the  state.  A  similar 
attempt  has  been  made  by  devoting  to  recreation  a  part  of  the 
program  at  teachers'  institutes  which  are  held  annually,  every 
teacher  in  the  state  being  obliged  to  attend.  In  this  way  the  seeds 
are  gradually  being  scattered  even  in  the  most  remote  of  rural  com- 
munities, although  it  may  be  a  long  time  before  any  definite  results 
are  obtained.  A  desire  for  wholesome  recreation  must  first  be 
created  in  the  people  and  when  this  has  been  done  it  will  be  the 
responsibility  of  the  state  not  only  to  foster  this  desire  but  to  pro- 
vide the  means  of  its  realization  through  its  various  social  agencies. 

It  is  the  aim  of  this  report  to  picture  as  far  as  possible  the 
present  condition  in  Alabama,  uncomplicated  by  military  activities. 
In  some  cases  this  has  been  difficult  as  the  entire  aspect  of  the  recrea- 
tional problem  has  been  changed  by  the  presence  of  large  military 
camps.  In  making  the  investigation  upon  which  the  report  is  based 
ten  counties  (Lauderdale,  Madison,  Etowah,  Clebourne,  Talladega, 
Jefferson,  Tuscaloosa,  Montgomery,  Dallas  and  Mobile)  and  eight 
cities  (Anniston,  Bessemer,  Birmingham,  Gadsden,  Mobile,  Mont- 
gomery, Selma  and  Tuscaloosa)  as  well  as  several  small  towns  and 
villages  were  visited.  The  subject  naturally  falls  into  two  divisions, 
urban  and  rural,  which  will  be  considered  separately. 

URBAN  RECREATION 

The  problem  of  providing  adequate  recreational  facilities  for 
children  has  been  complicated  by  the  somewhat  abnormal  conditions 
which  exist  at  the  present  time  throughout  the  state.  The  towns 
and  cities  located  near  the  cantonments  have  been  strained  to  their 
utmost  capacity  to  provide  for  the  soldier,  who  has  completely 
absorbed  the  public  interest  for  the  time  being,  the  child  being  left 
to  shift  for  himself.  In  most  cases  the  effort  to  entertain  the  soldier 
has  resulted  in  a  higher  standard  of  recreation.    The  War  Camp 


Recreation  207 

Community  Sendee  in  whose  hands  the  problem  has  been  placed, 
is  largely  responsible  for  this  improvement.  All  places  of  amuse- 
ment are  carefully  supervised  by  the  committee,  assisted  by  the 
military  and  civil  authorities,  and  no  pubHc  performance  which 
may  be  considered  questionable  is  allowed  to  continue.  The  U.  S. 
Public  Health  Service  is  responsible  for  the  sanitation  of  public 
places  of  amusement  which  have  been  kept  scrupulously  up  to 
standard.  . 

From  the  standpoint  of  the  child,  however,  most  of  the  towns 
have  pathetically  little  to  offer.  The  most  common  and  without 
doubt  the  most  popular  fomi  of  amusement  for  children  as  well  as 
adults  is  the  motion  picttu-e  show.  In  this  particular  field  which 
offers  such  \^^de  and  varied  opportunities  for  a  special  appeal  nothing 
definite  for  the  special  benefit  of  children  has  yet  been  accomplished 
and  although  several  moving  picture  producers  reported  an  attempt 
at  children's  programs,  they  were  unanimous  in  feeling  that  such 
programs  were  imsuccessful  from  the  popular  as  well  as  the  finan- 
cial standpoint.  In  all  cases  special  children's  features,  such  as  the 
Bluebird,  AHce  in  Wonderland,  etc.,  were  reported  to  have  met  with 
little  or  no  response  on  the  part  of  the  children,  while  i^ictures  featvu"- 
ing  the  leading  movie  actors  and  actresses  may  be  counted  on  to 
pack  the  house.  Only  one  manager  had  attempted  films  of  the 
so-called  educational  type  with  any  degree  of  success,  films  of  Dick- 
ens stories,  for  example,  having  been  so  well  received  that  others  of 
the  same  character  had  been  booked  for  the  following  month.  This 
moving  picture  theatre  was  in  a  university  town  and,  as  the  manager 
frankly  confessed,  did  not  attract  as  many  children  as  another 
theatre  down  the  street  which  featured  a  popular  comedian.  Family 
group  pictures  are  made  practically  impossible  in  all  cases  because 
few  of  the  moving  picture  theatres  show  more  than  a  news  film  and 
one  feature  picture  at  each  performance.  This  makes  a  wise  selec- 
tion of  films  for  the  daily  program  a  matter  of  vital  importance. 
For  the  purpose  of  this  investigation  thirty-seven  motion  picture 
theatres  in  eight  cities  were  visited,  nine  of  which  included  vaude- 
ville in  the  regular  program.  It  is  rather  difficult  to  detciTninc  in 
one  visit  to  each  theatre  what  is  the  general  standard  of  the  house, 
but  in  very  few  instances  were  the  ]')ictures  found  to  contain  anything 
objectionable  or  harmful  to  children. 

There  is  neither  state  nor  local  censorship  at  present  in  Alabama. 


208  Child  Welfare  in  Alabama 

An  ordinance  providing  for  local  censorship  was  introduced  in  Mont- 
gomery some  time  ago  but  it  was  defeated.  Moving  pictures  in 
Birmingham  have  been  censored  from  time  to  time  by  volunteer 
committees  but  at  present  this  is  not  being  done,  in  all  cases  censor- 
ship being  left  entirely  to  the  manager.  Several  of  the  managers 
who  were  interviewed  said  that  it  was  their  custom  to  watch  the 
first  matinee  performance  for  any  features  which  might  be  considered 
objectionable.  They  were  quite  unanimous,  however,  in  agreeing 
that  the  public  would  not  permit  the  production  of  questionable 
pictures  and  that  it  was  a  matter  of  good  business  to  see  that  the 
standard  of  their  theatres  was  not  lowered. 

The  securing  of  a  higher  standard  of  pictures  for  adults  as  well 
as  childi'en  depends  upon  public  education.  A  demand  for  more 
educational  pictures  must  first  be  created  by  means  of  publicity  of 
the  right  sort,  through  newspapers,  women's  clubs,  schools,  churches, 
etc.  Parents  must  be  made  to  realize  the  danger  of  giving  money 
indiscriminately  to  their  children  for  moving  picture  shows.  They 
should  know  what  sort  of  pictures  their  children  are  seeing,  and 
whether  or  not  they  are  suitable.  The  problem  which  naturally 
arises  at  this  point  is  how  children  may  be  prevented  from  seeing 
improper  picttues.  A  picture  may  be  quite  harmless  from  the  adult 
point  of  view  but  as  long  as  children  are  permitted  to  attend  the  same 
performance  they  are  likely  to  be  brought  into  contact  with  situations 
to  which,  at  their  age,  it  is  unwise  to  attract  their  attention. 

At  the  present  time  only  one  city  has  an  ordinance  controlling 
the  nature  of  the  performance  which  shall  be  given  in  the  moving 
picture  houses.  The  ordinance  of  Birmingham  is  explicit  in  this 
respect.  Films  depicting  the  vulgar  or  the  obscene,  scenes  of  vio- 
lence, such  as  lynchings  or  suicide,  immorality,  white  slave  traffic, 
etc.,  are  barred.  There  is  also  a  general  provision  for  prohibiting 
vulgar  or  immoral  vaudeville  performances  and  there  has  been  little 
complaint  with  regard  to  the  character  of  either  films  or  vaudeville 
in  the  city  and  in  fact  in  the  state.  "Public  opinion  will  not  stand 
for  anything  vulgar,"  seems  to  be  the  general  opinion  of  those  in- 
terested in  film  or  theatrical  production.  Some  of  the  towns  have 
ordinances  giving  the  police  power  to  close  public  performances 
of  an  indecent  natiu-e.  These  ordinances  are  rarely  enforced. 
An  investigation  by  the  War  Camp  Community  Service  of  the  recrea- 
tional situation  in  Mobile  has  resulted  in  an  attempt  to  improve 


Recreation  209 

conditions  in  the  motion  pictiire  theatres  of  that  city.  Under  the 
direction  of  a  committee  of  this  organization  a  model  moving  pictiire 
ordinance  is  being  drawn.  The  movement  has  met  with  hearty  co- 
operation on  the  part  of  the  producers  as  well  as  the  authorities. 
Several  of  the  managers  have  submitted  their  monthly  programs 
to  the  committee  for  approval  before  advertising  the  pictures. 

There  are  comparatively  few  theatres  which  include  vaudeville 
as  a  part  of  the  regular  program.  Four  of  the  cities  have  vaudeville 
houses  which  are  on  the  Keith  or  Loew  circuit  and  which  offer  a 
good  type  of  vaudeville  performance.  Aside  from  this  better  type 
of  vaudeville  three  of  these  cities  were  found  to  contain  vaudeville 
theatres  of  the  burlesque  variety.  These  cater  to  a  cheap  class  and 
are  often  of  a  vulgar  and  demoralizing  nature.  In  one  case  the  in- 
vestigator was  told,  "That  show  is  no  place  for  a  woman,"  At  the 
time  of  this  investigation  none  of  the  regular  theatres  were  open. 
An  occasional  stock  company,  vaudeville  performance  or  a  road 
company  of  the  better  class  was  reported  but  in  most  cases  these 
had  not  met  with  financial  success  which  perhaps  accounts  for  their 
occasional  appearance. 

In  only  two  cities  were  the  theatres  and  places  of  amusement 
open  on  Simdaj^s.  At  the  time  the  investigation  was  made  an  or- 
dinance making  Simday  performances  possible  was  under  considera- 
tion in  Birmingham.  This  ordinance,  however,  failed  to  pass.  Ten 
theatres  were  found  to  open  at  9.30  a.m.;  the  others  open  anywhere 
from  12  to  2.30,  closing  usually  from  10.30  to  11  o'clock.  The 
admission  varies  from  5  to  20  cents,  according  to  the  character 
of  the  theatre,  10  to  15  cents  being  the  average  price.  The  price 
of  the  cheaper  vaudeville  shows  is  usually  15  to  25  cents.  Keith's  and 
Loew's  theatres,  however,  are  more  expensive  and  for  that  reason 
the  attendance  of  children  is  limited. 

There  is  no  state  law  prohibiting  the  attendance  of  children  under 
16  years  of  age  at  night  unaccompanied,  nor  has  there  been  any 
attempt  at  local  regulation.  The  attendance  of  children  in  most  of 
the  motion  picture  theatres  is  large,  in  one  case  a  manager  reported 
50  per  cent.  Very  often  parents  leave  their  children  at  the  theatre 
while  they  are  shopping  or  otherwise  engaged,  and  frequently  they 
remain  as  late  as  10.30  entirely  alone.  In  one  city  an  unusually  large 
percentage  of  children  present  at  a  morning  performance  was  noticed. 
One  manager  was  found  who  made  a  practice  of  allowing  children 


210  Child  Welfare  in  Alabama 

to  come  in  free  after  the  first  evening  performance,  with  the  result 
that  at  9.30  there  is  always  a  noisy  and  disorderly  crowd  of  boys 
hanging  around  the  doors  waiting  to  be  let  in  and  causing  a  great 
deal  of  inconvenience  to  the  passersby  and  to  the  patrons  of  the 
theatre. 

Six  of  the  cities  visited  have  ordinances  requiring  the  inspection 
and  approval  of  buildings  by  the  city  building  inspector.  In  the 
two  other  cities  the  inforaiation  was  not  obtained.  The  ordinances 
controlling  sanitation  of  public  buildings  are  for  the  most  part 
comprehensive  but  so  far  as  could  be  fotmd,  there  has  been  no  effort 
to  enforce  them  except  in  cities  near  army  cantonments  where  the 
administration  of  sanitary  affairs  is  in  the  hands  of  the  U.  S.  Public 
Health  Service.  This  does  not  mean  that  the  theatres  are  not  in 
good  sanitary  condition  or  properly  ventilated.  In  most  cases  the 
buildings  are  in  very  good  condition,  clean  and  well  ventilated, 
some  of  them  having  been  made  very  attractive.  Only  four  were 
found  to  be  dirty  or  lacking  in  proper  ventilation  and  none  were 
found  unlighted  throughout  the  performance  although  this  is  rarely 
required  by  ordinance. 

Every  city  and  town  requires  the  payment  of  a  license  for  the 
operation  of  a  moving  picture  theatre.  The  amount  of  the  license 
is  usually  fixed  annually,  and  differs  according  to  the  seating  capacity, 
price  of  admission,  net  proceeds  of  the  theatre,  inclusion  of  vaude- 
ville, etc.  In  addition  to  the  city  license  there  is  a  state  license  of 
$150  and  a  county  license  of  approximately  $75.  This  fee  is  doubled 
in  case  of  Sunday  performances. 

All  of  the  theatres  visited  have  complied  with  the  Southern  Fire 
Underwriters'  regtdations  in  respect  of  fire  protection.  These  re- 
quirements are  very  complete,  comprising  construction  of  the  booth, 
nimiber  and  width  of  aisles,  number  and  width  of  exits,  marking  of 
exits,  standing  in  the  aisles  or  at  the  rear  of  the  theatre,  overcrowd- 
ing of  the  theatre,  use  of  fire  extinguishers,  etc.  The  ordinances 
of  some  of  the  cities  are  very  specific  with  regard  to  fire  protection, 
but  in  all  cases  a  regular  system  of  inspection  should  be  established 
and  the  ordinances  enforced.  Only  two  violations  of  the  fire  regula- 
tions were  found.  In  one  theatre  a  large  number  of  people  were 
permitted  to  stand  in  the  rear  of  the  theatre  during  the  performance 
and  in  the  other  the  exits  at  the  front  on  either  side  of  the  screen  were 
not  marked. 


Recreation  211 


Recommendations. 


In  order  to  insure  the  physical  safety  of  patrons  of  motion 
pictiire  theatres  systematic  inspection  by  city  boards  of  health  would 
be  advisable,  and  a  careful  record  should  be  kept  of  the  places  in- 
spected and  the  sanitary  conditions  found.  Fire  ordinances  concern- 
ing motion  pictiu-e  theatres  and  comprising  the  regulations  of  the 
Fire  Underwriters'  organization  should  be  adopted  in  all  cities  and 
towns  and  enforcement  insured  through  inspection  by  the  fire  depart- 
ment. To  secure  the  enforcement  of  both  sanitary  and  fire  regulations 
the  co-operation  of  the  various  civic  associations  should  be  sought. 
Public  interest  should  be  aroused  and  the  people  should  be  made 
to  feel  the  necessity  of  reporting  violations  of  these  regulations  to  the 
proper  authorities  whenever  they  are  discovered,  and  of  following 
up  each  case  until  improper  conditions  are  corrected. 

With  regard  to  motion  pictui'cs  it  is  difficult  to  determine  how 
the  present  situation  may  be  improved.  When  children's  programs 
have  been  tried  and  found  to  meet  with  little  or  no  response  it  is 
difficult  to  convince  the  producer  that  they  may  be  made  a  financial 
success.  The  first  step  toward  more  suitable  pictures  for  children  will 
have  to  be  made  by  stimulating  public  opinion.  To  do  this  the  co- 
operation of  schools,  churches,  Y.  M.  C.  A.,  women's  clubs  and  other 
such  organizations  should  be  enlisted.  Good  pictures  should  be 
widely  advertised  through  these  organizations  and  the  interest  of 
the  children  diverted  to  specially  selected  films.  A  child's  interest 
may  be  aroused  by  a  suggestion  from  his  teacher.  He  will  go  to  see 
the  picture.  If  he  likes  it,  others  will  follow,  and  before  long  the 
I  producer  is  sure  to  be  gratified  by  the  result  of  his  co-operation  with 
the  schools. 

In  making  the  choice  of  suitable  pictures  the  producer  will  find 
the  lists  published  by  the  National  Board  of  Review  extremely  help- 
ful. These  are  selected  with  a  view  to  pleasing  the  rank  and  file  of 
cliildren  and  have  been  successful  wherever  they  have  been  tried. 
They  do  not  necessarily  have  to  be  children's  pictures  in  the  generally 
accepted  sense  of  the  term,  but  may  be  talcs  of  adventure,  stories 
of  the  West,  popular  comedies — any  of  the  various  types  which  the 
average  adult  enjoys,  so  long  as  they  are  not  overstimulating  or 
unsuitable. 

The  passage  of  a  state  law  preventing  the  exhibition  of  pictures 
containing  scenes  of  questionable  character  should  be  considered 


212  Child  Welfare  in  Alabama 

and  the  enforcement  of  such  a  law  should  be  placed  in  the  hands  of 
the  police  department  of  each  city.  There  should  also  be  a  state  law 
prohibiting  the  attendance  of  children  under  16  years  of  age  at  night 
unless  accompanied  by  parent  or  guardian. 

In  the  matter  of  censorship  it  is  again  necessary  to  depend  largely 
upon  public  opinion.  Local  or  state  censorship  seems  not  only  tinfair 
to  the  manager  but  to  the  public  as  well.  Local  censorship  in  a  small 
community  is  practically  impossible  from  the  standpoint  of  the 
manager  because  very  often  the  films  do  not  arrive  in  time  to  be 
viewed  by  the  censor  before  the  opening  of  the  performance  and  in 
case  they  should  be  rejected  there  is  no  chance  for  substitution  at 
such  a  late  hoiu".  Another  drawback  to  local  censorship  is  the  ten- 
dency to  force  films  which  have  been  rejected  by  the  board  of  one 
town  upon  a  neighboring  town  having  no  censorship.  From  the 
standpoint  of  the  public  both  local  and  state  censorship  seem  inad- 
visable. The  power  of  choosing  the  character  of  films  to  be  shown 
would  be  placed  in  the  hands  of  a  few  people  and  it  would  be  quite 
natural  for  each  one  to  be  influenced  by  his  individual  taste.  It 
would  be  difficult  to  secure  a  sufficiently  large  group  of  representa- 
tive people  to  form  a  voltintary  board  of  censorship  who  would  devote 
enough  time  to  the  matter  to  make  their  work  effective. 

It  must  be  recognized  that  the  moving  picture  has  come  to  stay 
and  that  it  is  daily  growing  in  popularity.  No  effective  substitute 
can  be  found,  although  through  the  development  of  recreational 
facilities  out-door  play  may  in  time  vie  with  it  in  popularity.  Until 
that  time  comes,  however,  every  effort  should  be  made  to  secure 
clean,  wholesome  pictures,  chosen  with  a  view  to  stimulating  normal 
emotions  and  ideas,  serving  the  same  purposes  in  the  child's  educa- 
tion as  wisely  directed  play,  and  satisfying  at  the  same  time  his 
desire  for  amusement. 

Dance  Halls. 

At  the  present  time  the  commercial  dance  hall  is  practically 
non-existent  in  Alabama.  Public  dances  are  being  held  nightly  at 
Oxford  Lake,  an  amusement  park  near  Anniston,  supervised  by 
military  authorities  and  the  War  Camp  Commimity  Service.  Bir- 
mingham's new  municipal  amusement  park  also  contains  a  dance 
pavilion  where  dances  are  held  nightly,  but  with  these  two  exceptions, 
no  licensed  dance  halls  were  found  in  any  of  the  cities  covered  by  this 


Recreation  213 

investigation.  In  several  of  the  cities  it  was  reported  that  they  had 
existed  in  the  past  but  in  most  cases  had  become  so  disorderly  that 
they  were  closed  by  the  city  authorities.  In  other  instances  they 
had  not  proven  a  success  financially  and  were  abandoned.  Among 
the  negroes,  however,  they  are  still  to  be  found  and  those  cities 
which  have  adopted  dance  hall  ordinances  have  done  so  for  the  pur- 
pose of  protection  against  the  disorder  which  frequently  arises  at 
these  places.  All  of  the  cities  and  nearly  all  of  the  towns  in  the  state 
require  a  license  for  the  operation  of  public  dance  halls,  but  very 
few  have  adequate  ordinances  for  their  control.  While  the  absence 
of  dance  halls  at  this  particular  time  simplifies  the  recreational 
problem  it  does  not  necessarily  mean  that  the  problem  will  never 
arise,  and  when  that  time  comes,  adequate  control  of  the  situation 
through  city  ordinances  will  be  necessary.  A  nominal  license  should 
be  required,  and  the  character  of  the  person  or  persons  running 
the  hall  or  employed  therein  should  be  ascertained  and  approved. 
Children  under  16  years  of  age  should  not  be  admitted.  A  12 
o'clock  closing  law  should  be  enacted  and  no  disorderly  or  disrepu- 
table persons  should  be  admitted  or  allowed  to  remain  in  the  hall. 
Provision  should  also  be  made  for  revoking  the  license  upon  refusal 
to  comply  with  the  ordinances.  In  addition  there  should  be  definite 
provision  for  enforcement  and  supervdsion  preferably  not  by  uni- 
formed police. 

Each  town,  however  small,  has  its  hall  where  semi-public  dances 
are  held,  usually  under  the  auspices  of  some  club  or  order.  In  the 
larger  cities  there  are  numbers  of  these  halls  and  in  many  cases  they 
are  used  every  night  for  dances.  In  one  city  several  were  visited 
and  conditions  were  found  to  be  bad.  Children  6  to  8  j^ears  old  were 
often  permitted  to  remain  until  after  11  o'clock, — the  crowds  were 
very  rough  and  upon  one  occasion  two  arrests  were  made  for  vulgar 
dancing.  In  one  instance  the  only  supervision  was  by  an  old  police- 
man who  remained  at  the  street  entrance  during  the  entire  evening. 
All  of  these  semi-public  dances  where  admission  is  charged  should  be 
subject  to  careful  inspection  either  b)'  an  official  appointed  for  the 
purpose  or  by  volunteer  committees. 

The  most  desirable  method  of  dealing  with  this  question  is 
through  municipal  ownership  and  control.  A  municipal  dance  hall, 
open  two  nights  a  week  or  oftener  if  possible  and  adequately  super- 
vised, affords  an  opportunity  for  recreation  of  a  wholesome  character 


214  Child  Welfare  in  Alabama 

to  take  the  place  of  that  which  will  be  found  elsewhere  under  less 
favorable  circumstances. 

Miscellaneous. 

1.  Pool  Rooms  and  Bowling  Alleys. 

In  some  of  the  smaller  towns  the  moving  pictures  and  the  pool 
rooms  are  the  only  sources  of  recreation.  The  city  ordinances  con- 
trolling pool  rooms  are  quite  comprehensive;  minors  are  barred  by 
state  law,  entrances  must  be  secured,  glass  transoms  are  required, 
the  rooms  must  be  closed  between  11p.m.  and  6  a.  m.,  they  must  be 
visible  from  the  street  and  they  are  all  subject  to  police  inspection. 
In  one  of  the  larger  cities  quite  an  extensive  campaign  has  recently 
been  conducted  against  the  pool  rooms  with  the  result  that  they  are 
now  under  very  rigid  surveillance  by  the  police  department.  Many 
were  closed  for  violation  of  the  liquor  or  the  gambling  law.  In  no 
case  did  the  investigator  find  minors  employed  or  allowed  to  play. 

2.  Skating  Rinks. 

In  six  towns,  skating  rinks  had  formerly  been  open  but  there 
were  none  at  the  time  of  the  investigation.  In  only  one  city  was  there 
a  rink  found  running. 

3.  Swimming  Pools. 

One  city  has  a  municipal  swimming  pool  of  four  acres.  Two 
cities  have  pools  at  amusement  parks,  one  of  which  is  not  open. 
One  park  contains  a  lake  which  is  used  for  swimming.  In  another 
city  there  is  an  excellent  pool  run  in  connection  with  the  children's 
playground,  in  another  there  are  one  public  and  two  privately  owned 
pools  which  are  occasionally  open  to  the  public.  Two  cities  had  no 
public  pools. 

4.  Amusement  Parks. 

In  Birmingham  there  is  a  municipally  owned  amusement  park 
which  offers  the  usual  attractions  to  the  public — boating,  dancing, 
roller  coaster,  swimming,  merry-go-rounds,  candy  and  refreshment 
stands,  etc.  There  is  in  addition  a  children's  playgroimd  very  well 
equipped  where  children  are  looked  after  by  a  matron  and  two 
assistants.  Four  privately  owned  parks  were  found — only  one  of 
which  was  running. 


Recreation  215 

5.  Travelling  Shows  and  Circuses  visit  the  various  cities  and 
many  of  the  small  towns  several  times  a  year.  They  are  usually  of 
the  cheap  variety  and  attract  only  the  rougher  element.  One  such 
show  was  running  in  Anniston  at  the  time  the  investigation  was 
made,  and  was  patronized  chiefly  by  negroes. 

Non-Commercial. 

1.     City  Parks  and  Playgrounds. 

(a)     Birmingham. 

There  are  about  fourteen  parks  in  Birmingham,  nearly  every 
one  conveniently  located  and  containing  some  apparatus  for  children. 
Several  years  ago,  trained  playground  supervisors  were  placed  in 
several  of  the  larger  parks  which  were  completely  equipped  with  ap- 
paratus, and  folk  dancing,  group  games  and  exercises  for  physical 
development  formed  a  part  of  the  program;  annual  exhibitions 
given  at  the  State  Farm  Grounds  and  representing  the  combined 
efforts  of  the  playground  supervisors.  May  festivals,  etc.,  wefe  also 
established.  But  all  this  has  been  abandoned  because  of  lack  of 
funds.  At  present  the  schools  are  carrying  on  the  abandoned  play- 
ground activities  as  far  as  they  can  and  in  many  instances  the  parks 
near  the  schools  are  being  used  for  recreational  purposes  under  the 
supervision  of  teachers.  The  school  authorities  and  School  Im- 
provement Association  are  co-operating  with  the  playground  com- 
mittee as  far  as  possible  to  keep  the  playgrounds  in  use  and  to  stimu- 
late the  desire  for  wholesome  outdoor  recreation  among  the  school 
children.  In  one  of  the  parks  an  auditorium  has  recently  been  built 
for  community  singing.  The  concerts  are  usually  held  on  Sunday 
afternoon. 

Montgomery. 

There  is  no  supervised  recreation  in  this  city.  There  are  two 
municipal  parks  comprising  about  G4  acres,  one  of  which  has  been 
equipped  with  swings,  see-saws,  pavilions,  tennis  courts,  slides  and 
a  small  zoo.  This  park  is  reached  by  trolley  from  town  and  attracts 
numbers  of  children,  but  it  is  perhaps  too  far  from  the  more  con- 
gested section  of  the  city  to  make  it  convenient  for  the  poorer  children. 
The  other  park  has  not  yet  been  developed. 


216  Child  Welfare  in  Alabama 

Mobile. 

At  the  present  time  Mobile  is  the  only  city  where  a  municipal 
playground  is  being  conducted.  It  is  splendidly  equipped  with  base- 
ball diamond,  basket  and  volley  ball  courts,  hockey  field,  swimming 
pool  where  instruction  in  swimming  is  given,  see-saws,  sand  pile, 
slides,  bars,  rings  and  the  simpler  forms  of  apparatus.  There  is  a 
trained  athletic  director  in  charge  during  the  summer  months. 

At  present  there  is  a  recreational  plan  under  consideration  which 
aims  to  co-ordinate  the  school  with  the  municipal  playground. 
During  the  school  term  the  physical  work  of  two  elementary  schools 
located  near  the  playground  is  to  be  conducted  there  under  the 
direction  of  the  present  athletic  director,  and  at  the  close  of  the  term 
the  work  will  continue  under  the  same  director.  If  this  plan  proves 
successful  it  is  hoped  that  other  available  land  near  the  other  schools 
may  be  utilized  for  the  same  purpose.  There  are  several  other  parks 
in  various  parts  of  the  city  comprising  about  35  acres  and  containing 
apparatus.  Quite  recently  five  acres  of  land  on  the  bay  front  were 
purchased  for  playground  piu-poses  but  this  land  has  not  yet  been 
developed.  A  community  center  with  a  playground  has  recently 
been  opened  in  one  of  the  congested  districts  of  the  city.  The  idea 
has  been  enthusiastically  received  but  it  is  still  too  new  to  predict 
what  the  outcome  will  be. 

The  interest  in  recreational  problems  which  has  been  aroused  in 
Mobile  is  steadily  growing  and  although  the  work  is  being  conducted 
without  much  financial  support,  a  splendid  start  has  been  made  from 
which  greater  things  may  result. 

Selma  has  no  parks.  Some  years  ago  the  city  water  works 
placed  a  few  pieces  of  apparatus  for  children  in  two  vacant  lots. 
They  are  seldom  used  and  are  very  much  out  of  repair  now.  No 
supervised  recreation  has  ever  been  provided  for  the  children  of  this 
city. 

Tuscaloosa  has  no  parks.  A  municipal  playground  was  started 
a  few  years  ago  under  the  auspices  of  the  Woman's  Club,  but  has  not 
been  kept  up. 

Bessemer  has  no  public  parks  or  playgrounds.  A  few  pieces  of 
apparatus  purchased  by  the  city  were  placed  in  a  vacant  lot  near 
the  court  house  a  few  years  ago  but  the  surroundings  are  very  un- 
attractive and  the  apparatus  badly  out  of  repair.  Supervised  play 
has  never  been  attempted. 


Recreation  217 

Annision  has  no  municipal  parks. 

Gadsden  has  a  municipal  playgroimd  established  and  supported 
by  the  Civic  League,  containing  several  pieces  of  apparatus  in  good 
repair.  There  are  in  addition  two  parks  comprising  about  28  acres, 
which  have  never  been  developed. 

Recommendations. 

The  number  of  children  to  be  seen  playing  on  the  streets  in  most 
of  the  cities  is  a  very  strong  argument  in  favor  of  the  municipal 
playground.  The  mere  provision  of  playground  and  equipment, 
however,  is  not  enough,  for  undirected  play  is  in  many  cases  as 
harmful  as  no  play  at  all  and  for  this  reason  an  athletic  director 
should  be  placed  in  charge  of  each  playground.  Parks  with  apparatus 
for  children  should  be  more  accessible  to  the  crowded  portions  of  the 
city,  and  should  be  provided  with  sand-piles,  swings,  see-saws,  etc., 
and  wherever  possible  wading  pools,  tennis  courts,  etc.,  for  the 
encouragement  of  outdoor  play.  All  forms  of  apparatus  should  be 
kept  in  repair. 

Schools. 

Only  one  city,  Birmingham,  was  found  to  have  a  system  of 
physical  education  which  might  be  considered  adequate.  Here  the 
physical  training  department  is  in  the  hands  of  a  director  and  assistant 
director,  who  supervise  all  physical  activity  in  the  elementary  schools. 
A  program  consisting  of  physical  exercises,  group  games,  drills,  folk 
dancing,  etc.,  covering  a  period  of  one  month,  is  given  each  grade 
teacher.  Once  a  month  the  teachers  meet  for  instruction  in  carrying 
out  the  program  and  several  times  a  month  the  class  work  is  inspected 
by  the  director  and  his  assistant.  The  playground  work  which  is 
being  done  in  connection  with  the  schools  has  already  been  mentioned. 
The  high  schools  have  two  athletic  directors  who  supervise  the  boys' 
and  the  girls'  athletics.  Gymnasium  work  is  required  in  the  school 
course,  and  in  addition  there  are  the  usual  team  games  and  inter- 
scholastic  contests.  All  the  elementary  schools  in  the  city  with  a 
teaching  staff  of  more  than  ten  are  fairly  well  equipped  with  play- 
ground apparatus.  The  playgroimd  work  which  has  been  conducted 
during  the  summer  has  been  replaced  this  year  by  war  gardening 
under  the  supervision  of  the  teachers. 


218  Child  Welfare  in  Alabama 

Social  life  in  the  schools  of  Birmingham  is  fostered  by  clubs  and 
entertainments  of  various  types.  Plays  are  given  under  the  auspices 
of  the  Dramatic  League,  an  orchestra  of  between  250  and  300  pieces 
has  been  formed  in  the  elementary  schools  and  a  Junior  Red  Cross 
has  been  organized.  The  high  school  has  organized  an  orchestra  as 
well  as  a  military  band,  and  machines  and  slides  for  illustrated  lec- 
tures have  also  been  installed  in  many  of  the  schools.  Gymna- 
siums were  found  in  only  two  other  city  high  schools  and  very  little 
apparatus  found  in  any  of  the  schools.  In  Montgomery  only  four 
of  the  ten  schools  have  yards  large  enough  to  install  playground 
apparatus,  and  this  was  found  to  be  the  case  in  several  of  the  other 
towns.  The  high  school  has  a  large  auditorium  which  is  used  by 
the  graded  schools  for  entertainments.  When  visited  a  rehearsal 
for  the  May  pageant,  given  by  the  first  and  second  grades  was 
being  conducted.  Other  high  and  elementary  schools  reported  clubs 
of  various  sorts  and  the  usual  school  activities.  The  State  School 
Improvement  Association  has  been  very  active  in  securing  better 
buildings  and  equipment  throughout  the  state  and  such  recreational 
activities  as  already  exist  may  be  largely  attributed  to  its  efforts. 
The  importance  of  play  as  an  educational  factor  has  long  been  recog- 
nized by  the  state  educational  department  and  through  its  influence 
a  place  for  recreation  is  gradually  being  established  in  the  public 
schools  of  the  state. 

Recommendations. 

The  adoption  of  a  plan  of  physical  training  and  recreation  for 
the  larger  cities  similar  to  that  now  being  used  in  Birmingham 
would  be  advisable,  i.  e.  all  branches  of  physical  training  should  be 
placed  under  one  supervisor  who  should  have  an  assistant  under 
whose  direction  all  physical  activities  in  the  elementary  schools 
should  be  placed.  A  definite  program  of  the  work  to  be  accom- 
plished each  month  including  exercises  for  physical  development, 
military  drill,  folic  dances,  group  games,  etc.,  should  be  given 
the  grade  teachers  who  do  the  actual  teaching.  Once  a  month 
the  teachers  should  meet  to  receive  instructions  from  the  assis- 
tant physical  director  for  carrying  out  the  schedule  and  several 
times  a  month  the  work  of  the  classes  should  be  inspected  by  the 
director  and  assistant  director.  Physical  work  in  the  high  schools 
should  be  carried  on  in  two  departments,  one  for  the  boys  and  one 


Recreation  219 

for  the  girls,  each  with  its  own  athletic  director.  Competitive  ath- 
letics should  be  established  in  the  high  schools  among  both  boys 
and  girls  and  interscholastic  contests  encouraged.  Annual  exhi- 
bition drills  and  pageants  among  the  elementary  classes  stimulate 
interest  in  recreational  work  both  among  the  children  and  in  the 
communit^^  The  high  schools  which  have  not  already  provided  or 
equipped  gvTnnasiums  should  do  so  whenever  possible. 

During  the  summer  recreational  work  should  be  continued 
under  full  or  part  time  direction,  and  for  this  purpose  the  school 
yards  should  be  more  fully  equipped  with  apparatus.  In  case  the 
school  yard  does  not  meet  the  space  requirements  the  school  author- 
ities might  secure  the  co-operation  of  the  Park  Commissioners  and 
recreational  activities  might  be  carried  on  in  one  of  the  municipal 
parks. 

As  a  social  factor  the  school  should  be  more  closely  in  touch 
with  the  community.  If  a  program  comprising  various  forms  of 
wholesome  evening  entertainment  such  as  lectures,  dances,  moving 
pictures,  dramatics,  concerts,  etc.  is  adopted  by  each  school,  the 
bo3's  and  girls  will  come  more  and  more  to  depend  upon  the  school 
to  furnish  the  social  intercourse  which  they  require,  in  place  of  the 
less  desirable  activities,  either  private  or  commercial,  which  the  city 
provides.  In  arranging  the  entertainment  programs  every  effort 
should  be  made  to  secure  the  interest  of  the  adults  as  well  as  the 
young  people  of  the  community.  In  this  way  the  home  may  be 
brought  into  closer  relationship  with  the  school — a  matter  of  vital 
importance  to  both.  For  this  purpose  each  school  should  have  its 
auditorium  or  should  be  arranged  so  that  the  partitions  of  certain 
class  rooms  may  be  thrown  open  to  fonn  a  room  large  enough  for 
social  gatherings. 

Libraries. 

Seven  city  libraries  were  visited  in  Birmingham,  Bessemer, 
Anniston,  Gadsden,  Montgomery,  Sclma  and  Tuscaloosa.  The 
children's  work  consists  of  a  children's  reading  room,  story  hour  and 
occasional  school  deposit  station.  Lack  of  funds,  has,  however, 
made  extension  practically  impossible.  At  the  present  time  only  a 
very  small  library  fund  raised  by  subscription,  with  an  additional 
S25  per  month  from  the  city,  is  available. 


220  Child  Welfare  in  Alabama 

Settlements. 

Very  little  work  of  this  sort  is  being  done  at  present.  The 
Neighborhood  House  in  Birmingham,  Wesley  House  in  Ensley  and 
two  settlements  in  Montgomery  in  connection  with  the  Methodist 
and  Episcopal  Churches  and  one  in  Mobile  also  connected  with  the 
Methodist  Church,  are  practically  the  only  organizations  of  this 
kind.  The  usual  class  work,  working  girls'  clubs,  recreation  evenings, 
kindergarten  and  play  periods  for  children  are  conducted. 

Y.  M.  C.  A.  and  Y.  W.  C.  A. 

The  recreational  work  of  these  associations  is  well  organized, 
but  they  reach  a  comparatively  limited  number  of  young  people. 
At  present  both  organizations  are  absorbed  in  various  branches  of 
war  activities  and  the  younger  boys  and  girls  have  been  in  a  measure, 
crowded  out.  The  present  lack  of  workers  has  also  been  a  serious 
handicap.  Such  activities,  however,  as  the  establishment  of  working 
girls'  clubs  and  patriotic  leagues  may  be  expected  to  be  permanent 
and  will  prove  an  undeniably  important  socializing  factor. 

The  Y.  M.  C.  A.  is  more  widely  organized  and  more  completely 
equipped  than  the  Y.  W.  C.  A.  There  are  splendid  organizations  in 
Huntsville,  Tuscaloosa,  Birmingham,  Montgomery,  Selma  and  Mobile 
and  several  branches  in  industrial  communities  as  Opelika  and 
Fairfield. 

A  branch  of  the  Y.  M.  C.  A.  is  to  be  opened  in  Walker  County 
which  will  undertake  welfare  work  of  all  sorts,  special  consideration 
being  given  to  community  problems  of  the  rural  districts. 

Boy  Scouts,  Girl  Scouts,  Camp  Fire  Girls. 

The  Boy  Scout  movement  is  quite  extensive  throughout  the 
state.  There  are  troops  in  107  towns  and  cities  and  the  number 
enrolled  is  between  2,500  and  3,000.  Ten  of  the  107  towns  have  more 
than  10,000  inhabitants,  nineteen  over  2,500,  and  the  remainder 
fewer  than  2,500.  Several  towns  reported  Girl  Scout  organizations 
or  Camp  Fire  Councils  but  these  are  few  in  number  and  the  total 
membership  is  small. 


Schools. 


Recreation  221 

RURAL  RECREATION 


Fifty-six  of  the  67  counties  in  the  state  have  county  high  schools 
which  form  a  nucleus  around  which  center  the  recreational  activities, 
such  as  they  are.  The  athletic  departments  have  been  for  the  most 
part  fairly  well  developed.  Each  school  has  its  athletic  director, 
usually  a  member  of  the  faculty,  under  whose  supervision  the  work 
of  the  various  teams  is  conducted,  and  from  30  to  40  per  cent  of  them 
have  annual  athletic  meets  and  a  schedule  of  interscholastic  games. 
Among  the  elementary  schools  there  are  individual  instances  of 
activity.  A  recreational  league  composed  of  the  teachers  of  all  the 
schools  has  been  organized  in  one  county.  An  annual  Play  Day  has 
been  established  by  this  leag-ue  for  the  purpose  of  bringing  the  schools 
of  the  county  into  closer  relationship  and  furnishing  an  opportunity 
for  wholesome  recreation  for  both  children  and  adults.  Practically 
every  school  in  the  county  is  represented  at  the  Play  Day  exercises 
held  at  the  county  fair  grounds.  In  preparation  for  the  meet,  schools 
individually  and  in  groups  hold  tryouts  and  in  many  communities 
preliminary  contests  are  held  among  the  adults  in  order  to  choose 
their  representatives.  Nearly  4,000  people  were  present  at  the  last 
Play  Day  exercises. 

About  76  per  cent  of  the  schools  have  organized  corn  clubs  among 
the  boys  and  20  per  cent  have  girls'  canning  clubs.  Debating  societies 
are  growing  in  popularity  and  inter-county  debates  have  been  con- 
ducted in  some  of  the  counties.  Boy  Scout  troops  have  been  fairly 
widely  organized  in  the  small  towns.  There  is  room,  however,  for 
many  more  such  organizations  especially  among  the  girls  and  they 
should  be  encouraged  as  far  as  possible  by  the  schools.  In  most 
cases  the  Scout  troops  in  the  small  towns  are  afhliated  with  either 
the  church  or  the  school. 

In  none  of  the  communities  visited  were  there  any  signs  of 
playground  apparatus  and  no  effort  whatsoever  to  include  physical 
training  of  any  sort  in  the  school  program.  In  most  cases  the  essen- 
tial school  equipment — buildings,  furniture,  etc.  is  extremely  in- 
adequate and  hence  the  lack  of  apparatus  for  outdoor  play  is  not 
surprising.  In  one  small  town  an  attempt  had  been  made  to  or- 
ganize a  community  playground  but  it  had  been  abandoned  because 
of  lack  of  funds  and  some  difficulty  over  land. 

There  is  a  law  which  pcnnits  the  state  and  the  Board  of  County 


222  Child  Welfare  in  Alabama 

Commissioners  to  appropriate  $10  each  to  any  school  which  will 
raise  $10  for  library  books.  This  will  purchase  three  sets  of  books 
at  $10  a  set  and  under  the  terms  of  law  ten  or  more  libraries  may  be 
secured  in  one  year  by  each  county.  A  reading  circle  for  teachers 
and  pupils  was  organized  several  years  ago,  the  board  of  which  co- 
operates with  the  State  Superintendent  of  Education  in  selecting 
suitable  libraries  for  elementary  and  high  schools.  At  the  present 
time  4,000  of  the  libraries,  comprising  about  87,000  volumes,  have 
been  installed  in  the  schools  throughout  the  state. 

Recommendations — Rural. 

Schools. 

In  the  rural  community  the  school  is  the  logical  social  center 
and  a  factor  of  vital  importance  in  developing  the  recreational 
spirit.  All  the  recreational  activities  should  be  placed  under  the 
supervision  of  a  physical  training  director  for  each  county, — who 
may  be  a  director  of  the  county  high  school  or  the  county  school 
superintendent — and  the  plan  of  recreation  previously  suggested 
for  cities  might  be  used  to  very  good  advantage.  In  some  instances 
it  may  need  to  be  modified  slightly  to  meet  the  requirements  of  the 
rural  community. 

The  child's  love  of  out-of-doors  should  be  stimulated  by  nature 
study,  supplemented  by  tramps  in  the  country  for  observation. 
Boy  and  Girl  Scout  troops  and  Camp  Fire  Councils  should  be  es- 
tablished more  extensively.  Since  the  establishment  of  county 
recreational  leagues  has  proven  such  an  effective  means  of  bringing 
the  adults  as  well  as  the  children  together,  it  would  be  well  to  en- 
courage the  organizing  of  such  leagues  in  all  the  counties.  Annual 
Play  Day  should  be  established,  athletic  meets  and  other  community 
gatherings  should  be  arranged  and  every  effort  should  be  made  by 
the  school  authorities  to  secure  adequate  play-ground  equipment. 
On  the  social  side  there  should  be  concerts,  lectures,  club  meetings, 
etc.  Each  school  should  have  canning  and  corn  clubs.  Agricultural 
clubs  established  by  the  county  farm  agent  are  an  extremely  im- 
portant factor  socially  as  well  as  educationally. 

North  Carolina  has  recently  undertaken  an  interesting  experi- 
ment of  extending  moving  pictures  to  the  rural  districts  through 
state  aid,  a  plan  which  might  be  adopted  in  Alabama.     The  state 


Recreation  223 

has  appropriated  S25,000  to  help  defraj^  the  expenses  and  each 
county  is  expected  to  raise  the  balance  needed.  It  has  been  estimated 
that  a  unit  consisting  of  one  moving  picture  outfit,  films  and  the  ser- 
vice of  an  operator  may  be  obtained  for  approximately  $3,000,  the 
average  cost  of  one  performance  being  $12.  Ten  towns  in  a  county 
where  the  experiment  was  tried  guaranteed  a  sum  not  to  exceed 
$225,  for  ser\dces  for  one  year,  the  money  for  which  was  raised  by 
charging  a  ten-cent  admission  fee  and  at  each  performance  the  pro- 
ceeds exceeded  the  cost  of  the  entertainment.  The  program  for  the 
evening  usually  consisted  of  one  hour  of  moving  pictures  followed 
by  a  lecture  or  discussion  of  community  problems.  The  obstacles 
hitherto  encountered  in  the  way  of  cost  of  equipment,  fire-proof 
booths,  licensed  operators,  etc.,  have  been  surmounted  in  every 
particular.  The  moving  picture  machine  and  an  electric  light  plant 
are  carried  from  one  community  to  another  in  an  automobile,  and 
insurance  regulations  are  met  through  the  use  of  an  incandescent 
lamp. 

The  possibilities  of  this  plan  from  the  standpoint  of  recreation 
are  obvious.  It  might  be  advisable  for  the  state  to  defray  the  entire 
expense  for  the  first  few  months  since  there  are  many  communities 
in  which  the  response  to  the  new  idea  might  not  be  sufficiently 
enthusiastic  at  the  beginning  to  make  it  a  financial  success.  In  a 
short  while,  however,  when  people  had  become  accustomed  to  the 
entertaimnents  and  had  learned  to  look  forward  to  them  a  small 
admission  fee  might  be  charged,  which  would  enable  each  com- 
munity to  defray  its  share  of  the  expenses. 

The  importance  of  school  libraries  cannot  be  overemphasized. 
Under  the  present  state  library  law  it  is  comparatively  easy  for  each 
school,  however  small,  to  secure  at  least  one  collection  of  books  and 
it  should  be  the  responsibihty  of  every  teacher  in  the  rural  districts 
to  see  that  this  privilege  is  extended  to  the  children. 

The  problem  which  the  rural  community  has  to  face  is  that  of 
counteracting  the  many  influences  which  are  steadily  pulling  away 
from  rural  Hfc.  In  order  to  do  this  it  must  offer  something  to  its 
boys  and  girls  which  will  not  only  hold  their  interest  but  something 
which  will  bring  them  closer  to  each  other  and  to  the  commtmity 
and  make  possible  for  them  a  brighter,  happier  and  more  vigorous 
life — the  sort  of  life  which  means  prosperity  for  themselves,  for  the 
state  and  for  the  country. 


224 


Child  Welfare  in  Alabama 


A.     Urban. 


GENERAL  RECOMMENDATIONS. 


Non-Commercial. 


(I)     Schools. 
(a) 


(b) 


(11) 


(I) 


(c) 
(d) 


(e) 

Parks. 

(a) 
(b) 


The  adoption  of  a  plan  of  physical  training  and 
recreation  similar  to  that  now  being  used  in 
Birmingham. 

The  encoiiragement  of  interscholastic  pageants, 
athletic  meets,  etc.  and  various  forms  of  out- 
door play. 

The  installation  of  gymnasiums  and  playground 
equipment. 

Continuation  of  recreational  work  under  trained 
supervisors  during  the  summer  months  and 
co-operation  with  the  city  park  commissioners 
in  the  use  of  mimicipal  parks  and  playgrounds. 

Wider  use  of  schools  as  community  centers. 

Development  of  municipal  parks. 
Installation  of  playground  apparatus. 


(H) 


Commercial. 

Dance   Halls. 

(a)  Adoption  of  city  ordinances  controlling  public 

dance  halls. 

(b)  Supervision   of   semi-public   halls   by   voluntary 

committee  or  paid  officials. 

(c)  Establishment  of  municipal  dance  halls. 

Motion  Pictures. 

(a)  Systematic  sanitary  and  fire  inspection  of  motion 

picture  theatres. 

(b)  Educational  campaign  through  churches,  Y.  M. 

C.  A.,  schools,  women's  clubs,  etc.  for  suitable 
children's  pictures. 

(c)  The  passage  of  a  state  law  prohibiting  exhibi- 

tion of  pictures  containing  scenes  of  question- 
able character  and  attendance  of  children 
under  sixteen  years  of  age  at  night  unac- 
companied by  parent  or  guardian. 


Recreation 


225 


B.     Rural. 


(I)     Schools. 

(a) 
(b) 
(c) 

(d) 
(e) 


Use  of  schools  as  community  center. 

The  establishment  of  county  recreation  leagues. 

Supervised  play  should  be  made  a  part  of  school 

work   and   plan   for   city   schools   should   be 

carried  out  as  far  as  possible. 
Agricultural  clubs,  Boy  and  Girl  Scout  Troops, 

etc.  should  be  organized. 
Adoption  of  plan  for  state  aid  for  motion  pictures 

in  rural  districts. 


LAW  AND  ADMINISTRATION 
W.  H.  Swift 

National  Child  Labor  Committee 

This  chapter  is  primarily  to  determine  what,  if  any,  changes 
either  in  the  law  or  the  administrative  agencies  of  Alabama  are 
necessary  in  order  to  carry  out  and  put  into  full  operation  the  recom- 
mendations made  by  the  other  contributors  to  this  volume. 

I.    PUBLIC   HEALTH 

Recommendation  1. — Increase  in  the  Scope  of  the  Work  of  the 
State  Board  of  Health. 

These  recommendations  relate  to  an  increase  in  the  duties  and 
work  of  the  State  Board  of  Health,  which  necessarily  calls  for  an 
increased  appropriation  of  funds.  Any  increase  in  its  working  force 
will  require  an  increase  in  the  amount  of  public  funds  to  be  applied 
to  public  health  activities.  The  legislature  must  be  looked  to,  then, 
first,  to  provide  ways  of  raising  the  additional  money  needed,  and 
second  to  appropriate  such  sum  as  is  needed.  Provisions  for  sani- 
tary engineers  and  inspectors  and  the  establishment  of  branches  of 
the  Pasteur  Institute  in  Birmingham  and  Mobile,  and  the  appro- 
priation of  the  necessary  funds  as  well,  could  all  be  covered  by 
amending  section  733,  code  1907.  If  sufficient  funds  were  provided, 
the  State  Board  of  Health  has  authority  to  carry  out  the  other 
recommendations  without  any  special  legislation,  smce  section  733, 
code  1907,  grants  to  the  Board  wide  powers  in  this  particular  field. 

The  abolition  of  the  Anti-Tuberculosis  Commission  could  be 
accomplished  by  the  repeal  of  Act  610,  statutes  of  1915.  The  repeal- 
ing act  could  be  written  so  as  to  transfer  all  its  rights,  duties  and 
powers  to  the  State  Board  of  Health.  Anti-tuberculosis  work  is  a 
part  of  public  health  work.  If  this  is  done  care  should  be  taken  to 
insure  to  every  county,  or  counties  acting  jointly,  the  right  to  es- 
tablish and  maintain  a  tuberculosis  hospital.  The  right  of  the  county 
health  officer  to  act  as  tuberculosis  physician  for  such  hospital  could 

226 


Law  and  Administration  227 

be  taken  away  by  amendment  to  Act  610.  County  tuberculosis 
hospitals  should  be  placed  under  the  supervision  of  the  State  Board 
of  Health  and  directly  under  the  county  health  officer.  If  the  work 
should  demand  it,  a  special  tuberculosis  hospital  physician  could  be 
provided. 

2. — School  Health  Regulations. 

As  to  the  regulations  concerning  communicable  diseases  and 
statement  of  cause  of  absence,  no  legislation  is  needed  in  order  to 
make  either  effective.  The  State  Board  of  Health,  in  co-operation 
with  the  State  Superintendent  of  Education  should  prepare  the 
matter  to  be  distributed  to  county  health  officers,  boards  of  edu- 
cation, and  teachers.  Both  recommendations  are  meant  to  apply  to 
private  as  well  as  public  schools,  both  being  for  the  protection  of 
the  public  health.  This  is  as  it  should  be.  Considerable  latitude 
will,  however,  have  to  be  allowed  in  stating  causes  of  illness,  unless 
the  teacher  is  required  to  state  them  as  of  her  own  knowledge.  Physi- 
cians are  not  called  in  every  case  of  absence  from  school  on  account 
of  illness,  and  parents  do  not  always  know  what  their  children  are 
suffering  from.  When  a  child  is  absent  from  school  it  is  the  duty 
of  the  truancy  officer  to  investigate  and  to  report  the  cause  to  the 
teacher.  If  this  were  done  in  every  case  there  would  be  better  school 
attendance,  less  truancy,  and  more  effective  co-operation  in  dealing 
with  health  matters. 

Vaccination.  An  act  of  the  legislature  would  be  necessary  in 
order  to  compel  every  pupil  entering  a  secondary  or  state  school 
to  be  vaccinated  against  typhoid.  It  should  be  written  so  as  to  re- 
quire every  child  entering  any  school  or  institution,  state,  public 
or  private,  to  be  vaccinated  against  both  typhoid  and  small-pox. 
A  public  health  measure  should  apply  to  all  alike,  and  the  widsom 
of  vaccination  against  both  diseases  has  been  sufficiently  demon- 
strated. 

School  Medical  Inspection.  Plans  for  carrying  out  this  import- 
ant recommendation  should  be  worked  out  jointly  by  the  State 
Board  of  Health  and  the  State  Superintendent  of  Education,  every 
school  child  to  be  weighed,  measured  and  examined  for  defects  by 
the  teacher.  Those  below  standard  should  then  be  required  to  sub- 
mit to  examination  by  the  health  officer  who  should  recommend  the 
proper  treatment.    Provision  should  be  made  for  insuring  that  the 


228  Child  Welfare  in  Alabama 

child  actually  gets  the  proper  treatment.  Teachers  will  have  to  be 
instructed  how  to  weigh,  measure  and  examine  a  child;  blank 
report  cards  should  be  provided,  and  when  filled  out  should  be  filed 
with  the  county  health  officer.  Legislation  will  be  necessary  in  order 
to  put  this  plan  into  full  operation,  but  lacking  this,  much  could  be 
done  by  the  joint  action  of  the  State  Board  of  Health  and  the  State 
Superintendent  of  Education. 

Full-time  county  health  officers  are  now  required  by  law  to  ex- 
amine the  pupils  of  every  school  at  least  once  a  year,  and  to  inspect 
school  premises  at  least  once  a  year  for  the  purpose  of  seeing  that 
the  drinking  water  supply  is  pure  and  that  the  surroundings  are 
sanitary — paragraph  5,  sub-division  III,  section  706,  code  1907. 
This  applies  to  all  schools  public  or  private.  However,  there  are 
but  few  full-time  county  health  officers  in  the  state,  and  those  on 
part-time  are  not  required  to  perform  such  service  and  have  no 
authority  to  enforce  proper  school  conditions  or  to  condemn  im- 
proper school  plants.  The  State  Board  of  Health  has  this  authority 
in  reference  to  public  schools.  It  should  be  given  to  all  county 
health  officers  in  reference  to  all  schools. 

3. — A  Full-time  Health  Unit  for  Every  County. 

Dr.  McCormick  recommends  that  every  county  in  the  state  be 
required  to  establish  and  maintain  a  full-time  health  unit.  This 
could  be  accomplished  by  amendment  of  sub-division  II  of  section 
703,  code  1907,  and  of  Act  390,  statutes  of  1915.  It  is  recommended 
that  a  public  health  nurse  be  attached  to  every  health  unit.  It  is 
evident,  of  course,  that  the  county  boards  of  revenue  will  have  to 
provide  funds  for  the  maintenance  of  these  health  units.  Realizing 
the  difficulties  which  may  arise  from  this.  Dr.  McCormick  suggests 
that  it  be  made  possible  for  county  boards  of  education  to  employ  a 
public  health  nurse  as  a  supervisor  of  hygiene  teaching  in  the  public 
schools  and  to  do  other  public  health  work.  In  order  for  this  to  be 
done  a  special  act  authorizing  the  granting  of  special  teacher's 
certificates  will  be  required.  Such  a  combined  public  health  nurse 
and  teacher  of  hygiene  would,  if  she  should  discharge  her  duties  with 
ability,  be  by  far  the  most  valuable  teacher  in  any  county.  School 
nurses  and  school  health  officers  have  been  tried  and  have  proved 
their  value.  But  it  would  be  a  mistake  to  shove  actual  public 
health  activities  ofiE  upon  school  boards.     For  best  results,  there 


Law  and  Administration  229 

must  be  efficient  public  health  forces  as  well  as  educational  forces, 
but  they  should  of  course  work  together  for  the  public  good. 

Review  of  Trial  of  County  or  Municipal  Health  Officer.  The 
change  recommended  could  be  accomplished  by  adding  under  (d) 
of  part  II,  section  704,  code  1907,  a  proviso  that  in  every  such  case 
the  action  of  the  County  Medical  Society  must  be  reviewed  by  the 
State  Board  of  Health  for  ratification,  modification  or  rejection 
and  by  adding  at  the  end  of  section  703  a  proviso  to  the  effect  that  a 
county  health  officer  who  has  been  removed  from  his  position  by 
the  action  of  the  County  Medical  Society  ratified  by  the  State  Board 
of  Health,  may  not  be  eligible  for  that  position  again  in  that  county. 
This  raises  a  most  interesting  question.  The  County  Board  of 
Health  which  is  the  County  Medical  Society,  may  elect  a  county 
health  officer  without  any  approval  by  the  State  Board  of  Health, 
part  5,  section  703,  code  1907.  Then  why  give  the  State  Board  of 
Health  the  right  to  override  the  county  board  in  the  matter  of 
discharge  for  cause?  A  happy  solution  would  lie  in  a  requirement 
that  every  election  of  a  health  officer  by  a  county  board  should  be 
approved  by  the  State  Board  of  Health,  and  the  law  should  be  so 
written. 

4. — Model  Vital  Statistics  Law. 

Any  state  may  cause  itself  to  be  placed  in  the  federal  registra- 
tion of  vital  statistics  area  by  the  enactment  and  enforcement  of  a 
proper  vital  statistics  law.  A  model  law  which  will  cover  the  case 
fully  may  be  had  from  the  federal  Bureau  of  Vital  Statistics;  this 
should  be  obtained  and  enacted.  Section  706  and  subsection  (a), 
section  710,  code  1907,  and  all  other  existing  laws  relating  to  the 
registration  of  vital  statistics  should  be  repealed  by  the  same  act. 
The  fact  that  a  state  is  not  in  the  federal  registration  area  is  a  reflec- 
tion upon  its  public  health  activities.  The  war  has  taught  us  that 
every  state  should  keep  an  accurate  account  of  its  vital  facts. 

5. — Examination  of  Midwives. 

There  is,  at  present,  no  law  requiring  midwives  to  be  examined 
or  licensed,  or  providing  for  the  granting  of  certificates  to  midwives 
after  examination.  A  new  law  empowering  the  State  Board  of 
Health  or  county  health  officer  tmder  the  supervision  of  the  State 
Board  to  prepare  and  conduct  such  examinations  and  grant  certifi- 


230  Child  Welfare  in  Alabama 

cates  after  satisfactory  examination,  and  forbidding  any  person  to 
act  as  a  midwife,  except  in  cases  of  emergency,  without  a  proper 
certificates  should  be  enacted.  Short  courses  of  instruction  for  mid- 
wives  should  be  given  in  every  county,  and  provision  should  be  made 
for  extending  the  course  required  for  examinations  from  time  to  time 
as  the  State  Board  of  Health  shall  see  fit. 

Every  physician,  midwife,  nurse  or  other  person  attending  at 
the  birth  of  a  child  should  be  required  by  law  to  apply  to  the  eyes 
of  the  child  the  treatment  approved  by  the  State  Board  of  Health 
to  prevent  blindness.  Midwives  should  be  taught  the  necessity  for 
this  and  should  be  examined  on  this  point  before  the  certificates  are 
granted.  The  required  treatment  should  be  provided  free  of  charge 
by  the  State  Board  of  Health  to  every  physician  and  midwife. 

6. — Abatement  of  Nuisances. 

This  recommendation  calls  for  sweeping  amendments  to  section 
718,  code  1907,  so  as  to  place  the  declaring  of  the  existence  of 
nuisances  entirely  in  the  hands  of  first,  the  county  medical  society 
which  is  the  county  board  of  health  and,  second,  the  State  Board 
of  Health  by  way  of  appeal.  Such  amendments  would,  of  course, 
take  away  the  right  of  a  citizen  to  have  his  cause  heard  in  the  courts, 
but  matters  affecting  the  public  health  must  generally  be  given 
immediate  attention.  Courts,  like  the  mills  of  the  gods,  grind  slow. 
The  law  governing  the  abatement  of  nuisances  should  be  rewritten 
so  as  to  strike  out  the  formal  hearing  before  the  county  medical 
society.  The  state,  county  or  municipal  health  officers  should  have 
the  power  to  declare  nuisances  and  to  order  and  compel  their  abate- 
ment, but  the  citizens  should  have  the  right  to  be  heard  in  the  courts. 
The  limitation  of  the  amount  to  be  expended  by  any  county  or 
municipality  to  $300  should  be  stricken  out;  emergencies  may  arise 
which  will  demand  the  quick  expenditure  of  much  more  than  that 
sum  for  the  protection  of  the  public  health. 

n.    EDUCATION 

Recommendations  1  and  2. — State  Board  of  Education. 

Alabama  has  no  State  Board  of  Education.  As  Dr.  Doster 
says,  the  method  of  control  of  two  educational  institutions,  the  Uni- 
versity and  the  Polytechnic  Institute,  is  fixed  by  the  constitution 


La-iV  and  Administration  231 

and  any  change  in  the  manner  of  control  of  these  would  therefore 
require  an  amendment.  The  method  of  electing  the  State  Superin- 
tendent and  his  term  of  office  are  likewise  prescribed  by  this  instru- 
ment and  any  change  in  these  could  be  made  only  by  amending  it. 
There  is  no  reason  why  a  State  Board  of  Education  could  not  be 
created  by  legislative  enactment  to  take  over  the  control  of  all  state 
educational  institutions  except  the  two  above  named;  but  no  act 
of  the  legislature  could  change  or  transfer  any  powers  or  duties 
placed  by  the  constitution  in  the  hands  of  the  State  Superintendent 
of  Education.  Neither  could  the  manner  of  electing  this  officer  or 
his  term  of  office  be  altered  by  mere  legislative  act. 

As  any  substantial  changes  in  respect  to  these  matters  would 
involve  amendments  to  the  constitution,  it  would  be  unwise  to  un- 
dertake to  make  any  changes  at  this  time  by  act  of  the  legislature. 
The  whole  field  should  be  studied  with  care  and  with  a  view  to 
making,  first,  such  amendments  to  the  constitution  as  are  found  to 
be  wise  and  necessary,  and  thereafter,  of  enacting  such  laws  as  would 
place  the  whole  well-matured  plan  in  operation. 

3. — Additional  Assistants   for  Office   of   State    Superintendent  of 
Education. 

This  office  is  not  sufficiently  manned.  Additional  assistants 
are  badly  needed.  An  a'ct  of  the  legislature  providing  for  these  and 
for  the  expenditure  of  public  school  funds  for  their  maintenance  is 
all  that  is  necessary.  It  would  be  well  to  consolidate  the  State 
Board  of  Examiners  with  the  Teacher  Training  Corps,  The  state 
is  expending  more  than  $300,000  annually  in  the  erection  of  rural 
public  school  buildings;  there  should  be  provided  for  the  office  of 
the  State  Superintendent  of  Education  two  or  three  supervisors  of 
the  expenditure  of  this  fund  and  of  the  erection  of  school  buildings. 
The  state  is  also  expending  more  than  $200,000  annually  in  the  sup- 
port of  county  high  schools  and  district  agricultural  schools;  there 
should  be  in  the  office  of  the  State  Superintendent  of  Education  a 
supervisor  of  these  schools. 

4.— Funds  for  University  Polytechnic  Institute  and    Girls'    Tech- 
nical Institute. 

The  successful  conduct  of  any  institution  depends  to  a  very 
great  extent  upon  its  ability  to  get  funds  when  needed.     A  great 


232  Child  Welfare  in  Alabama 

state  should  make  its  vouchers  worth  face  value  at  the  time  of 
issue.  Two  duties  therefore  rest  with  the  legislature:  first,  to 
provide  for  the  raising  of  all  necessary  funds — to  get  the  money; 
and  second,  to  appropriate  out  of  the  money,  arrangements  for  rais- 
ing which  have  already  been  made,  such  amounts  as  are  found  to  be 
necessary  for  the  best  operation  of  the  different  institutions. 

It  must  be  clear  to  anyone  who  has  given  thought  to  the  matter 
that  one  of  the  very  first  needs  of  Alabama  is  improvement  in  its 
financial  policy.  The  state  is  rich  and  yet  its  institutions  are  handi- 
capped by  a  lack  of  funds.  That  man  who  develops  and  puts  into 
active  operation  a  sound,  proper  and  adequate  financial  policy  will 
be  the  state's  foremost  citizen,  the  greatest  of  all  her  public  servants. 

5. — Teachers'  Certificates. 

The  change  in  the  matter  of  subjects  required  for  examination 
for  certificates  to  teach  in  the  public  schools  as  recommended  could 
be  brought  about  by  amending  Section  1734,  Code  1907.  Due  credit 
for  professional  experience  should  be  given  in  granting  certificates  to 
teach  in  the  public  schools;  the  subjects  now  required  for  examina- 
tion should  be  the  minimum.  A  person  who  is  unable  to  qualify 
in  these  should  not  be  permitted  to  teach  in  the  public  schools. 

This  leads  at  once  to  a  question.  Should  any  one  who  has  not 
shown  his  qualifications  under  the  standard  set  by  the  state  for  the 
public  schools  be  permitted  to  conduct  a  school  or  teach  children? 
The  state  ought  to  know  who  is  teaching  its  future  citizens  and 
what  is  being  taught  in  private  as  well  as  in  public  schools.  The 
educational  law  should  be  amended  so  as  to  give  the  State  Super- 
intendent of  Education  full  knowledge  and  control  in  this  matter. 
The  law  now  provides  that  private  schools  keep  records  in  conformity 
with  the  requirements  of  the  compulsory  education  law — Act  221, 
statutes  of  1915.  It  should  go  further  and  direct  that  teachers  in 
private  schools  show  that  they  are  able  to  teach,  and  that  they 
are  teaching  the  courses  required  by  law  to  be  taught  in  the  public 
schools.  Anti-Americanism  has  been  taught  in  schools  in  more 
than  one  state  in  America. 

6. — Compulsory  Education. 

All  changes  necessary  in  the  compulsory  education  law  could  be 
made  by  amending  Act  470  of  1915. 


Law  and  Administration  233 

In  order  that  the  compulsory  education  law  may  harmonize 
with  the  child  labor  law,  this  act  should  be  amended  so  as  to  raise 
the  maximum  compulsory  attendance  age  limit  from  15  to  16  years 
of  age.  All  exemptions,  except  when  the  child  lives  too  far  from  the 
school,  or  is  mentally  or  physically  unfitted  to  attend  school,  or  is 
more  than  14  3^ears  of  age  and  has  completed  the  seventh  grade  or 
its  equivalent  and  has  a  work  permit  issued  as  provided  for  by  the 
child  labor  law  and  is  at  work,  should  be  stricken  out.  The  child 
labor  law  (Act  169,  statutes  1915)  forbids  the  employment  of  any 
child  under  14  years  of  age  at  any  employment  except  agriculture 
and  domestic  service  when  schools  are  in  session,  and  requires  a 
work  permit  for  children  between  14  and  16  years  of  age. 

Every  child  between  the  ages  of  8  and  16  who  is  physically  and 
mentally  qualified  should  be  required  to  attend  for  the  full  public 
school  tenn  unless  he  lives  too  far  away  from  school  or  is  more  than 
14  years  of  age  and  has  completed  the  seventh  grade  and  is  at  work 
under  a  work  perniit.  No  board  of  education  should  have  authority 
to  reduce  the  compulsory  attendance  term.  Neither  should  an}'- 
teacher  or  attendance  officer  have  the  power  to  permit  temporary 
absence  in  extreme  cases  of  emergency  or  domestic  necessity.  In 
extreme  cases  of  emergency  there  is  no  time  for  obtaining  permits  for 
absence  and  children  should  not  be  kept  out  of  school  because  of 
domestic  necessity.  Neither  should  any  child  be  excused  from  school 
in  cases  of  extreme  poverty  because  his  services  are  necessary  fo 
the  support  of  himself  or  his  parents  or  because  of  the  lack  of  food 
or  clothes — the  state  should  take  legal  steps  at  once  to  meet  and 
care  for  these  cases  and  thereby  prevent  the  child's  being  robbed  of 
his  birthright.  The  juvenile  courts  are  alwa^^s  open  to  consider  cases 
of  dependency.  A  mother's  pension  act  is  needed  and  the  absence 
of  private  relief  societies  makes  this  all  the  more  urgent. 

Section  9  of  the  compulsory  education  act  should  be  amended 
by  striking  out  the  words  "unless  such  child  is  exempt  under  the 
provisions  of  sections  2,  3  or  4  of  this  act",  and  substituting  in  lieu 
thereof  "unless  the  child  is  more  than  14  years  of  age  and  is  regu- 
larly and  legally  employed  under  a  work  permit  as  required  by  the 
law  regulating  the  employment  of  children."  This  paragraph  should 
also  be  amended  so  as  to  take  away  the  power  of  boards  of  educa- 
tion to  grant  special  work  permits.  Work  peiTnits  should  be  granted 
only  as  provided  ior  in  the  child  labor  law. 


234  Child  Weljare  in  Alabama 

It  is  recommended  in  the  chapter  on  juvenile  courts  that  pro- 
vision be  made  by  law  for  a  full-time  combination  probation  and 
truancy  officer  or  bureau  in  every  county.  This  seems  to  be  the  best 
solution  of  both  probation  and  tiaiancy  officer  problems  and  if  adopted 
will  result  in  both  better  school  attendance  and  less  delinquency. 

There  may  be  some  question  as  to  the  wisdom  of  using  any  part 
of  school  funds  for  paying  truancy  officers.  They  are  paid  out  of 
the  general  county  fund.  Truancy  work  is  a  part,  a  vital  part,  of 
school  administration,  and  for  this  reason  school  funds  might  well 
be  used. 

There  should  arise  no  trouble  from  joint  elections  of  such  offi- 
cers by  boards  of  education  and  of  revenue.  A  majority  of  both 
boards  will  always  be  good  patriotic  citizens.  It  is  no  hard  matter 
for  good  men  to  agree  in  matters  affecting  the  education  of  the  chil- 
dren of  the  state.    Common  sense  may  safely  be  presumed. 

7. — Public  Kindergartens. 

Under  the  general  school  law  no  public  school  funds  can  be 
expended  for  the  support  of  kindergartens.  As  Dr.  Doster  says, 
the  minimum  age  for  admittance  to  public  schools  will  have  to  be 
lowered  if  kindergartens  are  to  be  made  a  part  of  the  public  school 
system.  This  would  require  an  amendment  to  the  constitution, 
the  present  constitutional  school  age  being  from  7  to  21  (Section 
256,  Constitution  1901).  Following  the  change  in  the  constitution, 
legislation  regulating  the  expenditure  of  school  funds  and  the  grant- 
ing of  certificates  to  teach  in  kindergartens  would  be  required. 

8. — Smith-Hughes  Fund. 

The  federal  government  tenders  to  Alabama,  as  to  every  other 
state,  a  certain  amount  of  money  yearly  for  vocational  education 
under  certain  definite  conditions.  It  becomes  the  duty  of  the  legis- 
lature, which  has  not  met  since  the  Smith-Hughes  Act  was  passed, 
to  provide  and  appropriate  funds  according  to  the  requirements 
and  to  meet  all  other  conditions  to  the  end  that  the  state  may  get 
the  fullest  benefit  from  the  money  tendered.  The  legislature  will 
hardly  fail  to  do  this.  It  would  be  a  calamity  if  it  should  fail.  The 
district  agricultural  schools  being  entirely  under  the  power  of  the 
legislature  can  easily  be  converted  into  federal-aided  schools  for 
teaching  vocational  agriculture  and  home  economics.    No  legislation 


Law  and  Administration  235 

is  necessar3^  Indeed,  every  one  of  them  is  now  operating  under  the 
provisions  of  the  Smith-Hughes  Act  with  regard  to  the  teaching  of 
vocational  agriculture,  but  vocational  home  economics  for  girls 
has  not  as  yet  been  provided. 

9  and  10. — Medical  School  Inspection. 

See  section  1  of  this  chapter,  on  Public  Health. 

1 1 . — Agricultural  Schools . 

See  section  8  on  the  Smith-Hughes  Fund. 

12. — Provision  for  Backward  Children. 

There  is  ample  authority  under  the  present  law  for  the  estab- 
lishment locally  of  special  classes  for  backward  children.  The  State 
Superintendent  of  Education  might  well  prepare  special  courses  for 
such  special  classes,  but  in  the  end  it  will  be  found  that  the  teaching 
of  such  children  must  be  left  largely  to  the  discretion  of  the  teacher. 
Certainly  in  schools  with  a  number  of  teachers,  there  should  be  a 
special  teacher  for  backward  children. 

III.     JUVENILE   COURTS   AND   PROBATION 

Recommendation  1. — Combination  Probation  and  Truancy  Officer 
or  Bureau. 

Through  this  recommendation  it  is  sought  to  cure  two  defects: 
first,  the  lack  of  proper  probation  work  in  connection  with  juvenile 
courts;  and  second,  the  failure  to  enforce  the  compulsory  education 
law.  One  officer  could  handle  both  probation  and  tmancy  work 
with  success.  This  same  officer  in  addition  to  his  other  duties  should 
issue  all  work  permits  and  follow  up  all  children  between  14  and  16 
years  of  age  to  see  that  they  are  either  at  work  or  in  school.  It  will 
require  legislation  to  authorize  the  use  of  public  school  funds  to  pay 
a  part  of  the  maintenance  of  this  combination  office.  Boards  of  edu- 
cation and  boards  of  revenue  should  be  required  by  law  to  meet 
jointly  at  a  certain  time  or  at  the  call  of  the  juvenile  judge  for  the 
election  of  such  officer,  and  an  act  of  the  legislature  to  cover  this 
point  will  be  necessary. 

The  present  juvenile  court  law  contemplates  the  appointment 
and  existence  of  boards  advisory  to  the  juvenile  judge  in  every 


236  Child  Welfare  in  Alabama 

county,  but  such  boards  have  been  appointed  in  only  5  counties. 
Judges  certainly  ought  to  meet  the  requirements  of  the  law  which 
they  administer,  and  advisory  boards  ought  to  be  of  great  service 
to  them,  especially  in  counties  where  there  are  no  probation  officers. 

2  and  3. — Juvenile  Courts  in  Jefferson  and  Mobile   Counties. 

Legislation  would,  of  course,  be  required  to  carry  into  effect  these 
recommendations  for  the  further  development  of  these  courts.  In 
each  case  this  could  be  had  by  amending  the  act  establishing  the 
court. 

4. — Non-support. 

Only  that  part  of  the  non-support  law  which  requires  the 
county  to  pay  50  cents  a  day  for  the  support  of  the  wife  or  family 
of  a  deserting  husband  during  the  time  of  his  service  for  the  county 
was  declared  unconstitutional.  This  could  be  restored  by  amending 
the  title  of  the  act  in  conformity  with  the  opinion  of  the  court; 
but  when  the  amendment  is  made,  the  sum  should  be  fixed  at  $1 
a  day.  The  very  purpose  of  a  non-support  law  is  to  provide  sup- 
port for  a  wife  and  children.  When  the  state  arrests  and  convicts  a 
man  for  failure  to  support  and  then  places  him  at  labor  for  it  or  the 
county,  it  simply  prolongs  the  period  of  suffering  on  the  part  of  the 
family.  Even  $1  a  day  is  a  very  small  sum  for  a  man  to  con- 
tribute toward  the  support  of  his  family  these  days. 

5  and  6. — Commitment  of  Children  to  State  Institutions. 

It  is  surprising  that  children  are  received  at  state  supported 
institutions  without  being  committed  by  any  court.  This  should 
not  be.  At  the  next  session  of  the  legislature  an  act  forbidding  this 
practice  should  be  adopted.  Children  should  be  committed  to  in- 
stitutions supported  wholly  or  in  part  by  the  state  only  by  the 
juvenile  court. 

The  new  act  should  also  forbid  the  juvenile  or  any  other  court 
to  commit  dependent  or  neglected  children  to  any  institution  for 
delinquents.  Superintendents  of  state  institutions  for  delinquents 
should  be  forbidden  by  law  to  receive  any  child  declared  by  the  court 
to  be  dependent  or  neglected.  Even  at  the  very  best,  delinquents 
will  always  be  classed  as  semi-criminals.     Unfortunates  should  not 


I 


Law  and  Administration  237 

be  shoved  into  the  same  institutions  with  deHnquents  and  there- 
after classed  with  them.  This  rule  should  also  be  extended  to  private 
institutions,  that  is,  the  admittance  of  delinquents  into  an  institu- 
tion for  dependents  or  an  ordinary  orphanage  should  not  be  allowed. 

7,  9,  10  and  11. — Duties  of  Child  Welfare  Division  of  Proposed 
State  Board  of  Social  Welfare. 

The  authors  of  the  chapters  on  juvenile  courts  and  institutional 
care  in  their  studies  have  both  been  brought  squarely  up  against 
the  need  for  a  State  Board  of  Social  Welfare.  This  is  an  entirely 
new  field  and  will  be  presented  later.  For  the  present  let  us  suppose 
that  it  will  be  established.  Under  it  there  should  be  a  child  welfare 
division. 

Along  with  other  duties  to  be  pointed  out  in  the  discussion  of 
Dr.  Bidgood's  recommendations,  the  child  welfare  division  should 
be  charged  with  the  duties  of: 

(a.)  Seeing  that  proper  forms  and  all  necessary  instructions 
are  provided  for  every  juvenile  court,  advising  with  juvenile  judges, 
and  instructing  probation  ofificers.  Juvenile  judges  and  probation 
officers  are  social  rather  than  strictly  legal  agencies  and  should 
therefore  be  kept  in  close  touch  with  the  best  thought  and  practice 
in  their  field. 

(b.)  Keeping  its  watchful  eye  upon  every  child  committed  to 
any  institution,  public  or  private.  To  this  end  a  report  of  every  case 
handled  by  the  different  juvenile  courts  should  be  made  to  this 
division.  The  superintendents  of  the  different  state  institutions 
should  be  required  to  notify  the  child  welfare  division  of  the  recep- 
tion of  every  child  committed,  and  thereafter  should  notify  not 
only  the  committing  court  but  the  child  welfare  division  of  the  dis- 
charge, parole,  escape,  or  death  of  the  child  committed.  This  should 
apply  to  private  as  well  as  state  institutions. 

8. — Apprenticeship. 

The  law  authorizing  probate  judges  to  bind  out  children — 
section  2806-2907,  code  1907— should  be  repealed.  Children  should 
be  placed  by  written  contract  which  should  provide  for  far  more 
than  kind  treatment,  instruction  in  how  to  read  and  write,  and  the 
award  of  two  new  suits  of  clothes  at  the  age  of  18  or  21.    There  may 


238  Child  Welfare  in  Alabama 

be  doubt  in  the  minds  of  some  juvenile  judges  as  to  whether  the  ju- 
venile court  law  really  supersedes  the  apprenticeship  law  and  in  order 
to  make  this  perfectly  clear  the  apprenticeship  law  should  be  re- 
pealed by  the  next  legislature. 

12  and  13. — Institutions  for  Feeble-minded  Children  and  Delinquent 
Negro  Girls. 

See  section  IV  on  Child-caring  Institutions. 

14.    Mothers'  Pensions. 

See  section  IV  on  Child-caring  Institutions,  sub-head  7. 

15. — A  Children's  Code  Commission. 

This  needs  no  discussion.  There  are  many  good  men  and  women 
ready  to  devote  their  time  and  money  to  the  preparation  of  a  chil- 
dren's code.  The  mere  study  of  the  many  questions  that  arise  in 
considering  the  codifying,  standardizing  and  co-ordinating  of  laws 
for  the  welfare  of  children  would  be  highly  beneficial.  The  members 
of  the  commission  should  be  appointed  by  the  governor  on  or  before 
Sept.  1,  1919,  but  the  right  to  appoint  additional  members  should 
be  left  with  him. 

There  is  another  matter  to  which  attention  should  be  called — 
the  existence  of  three  juvenile  laws.  As  Mrs.  Murdoch  points  out, 
the  special  Mobile  act  really  gives  jurisdiction  over  delinquents  only. 
It  follows  then  that  the  judge  of  the  Mobile  juvenile  court  does  not 
have  jurisdiction  over  cases  of  dependent  or  neglected  children. 
Such  cases  would,  in  the  strict  interpretation  of  the  law,  have  to  be 
heard  by  the  probate  judge. 

No  state  ought  to  have  three  or  even  two  juvenile  court  laws. 
There  should  be  but  one  law,  general  in  its  application.  There  should, 
however,  be  special  juvenile  courts  in  counties  with  large  cities. 
This  might  easily  be  provided  for  without  interfering  in  the  least 
with  the  general  application  of  the  state-wide  law.  Let  the  juvenile 
courts  in  Jefferson  and  Mobile  Counties  with  their  detention  homes 
and  any  other  institutions  remain,  but  let  them  administer  the  state 
juvenile  law,  which  may  be  amended  by  incorporating  any  good 
features  of  either  local  act.  The  day  of  local  laws  of  this  character 
is  past. 


I 


Law  and  Administration  239 

IV.     CHILD-CARING   INSTITUTIONS  AND   HOME   FINDING 

In  studying  the  problems  arising  in  both  child-caring  and  child- 
placing  institutions  and  examining  the  fields  covered  by  both  state 
and  private  agencies  for  children  Dr.  Bidgood  has  found  a  pressing 
need  for  an  additional  state  institution  for  feeble-minded  children  and 
a  less  urgent  need  for  another  for  delinquent  negro  girls.  It  is  signifi- 
cant that  Mrs.  Murdoch,  who  investigated  the  handling  of  children's 
cases  by  the  juvenile  courts,  found  the  same  needs  and  recommends 
that  two  additional  institutions  be  established  by  the  state,  one  for 
feeble-minded  children  and  the  other  for  delinquent  negro  girls. 
While  the  latter  is  not  of  such  immediate  importance  as  the  former, 
it  should  be  established  as  soon  as  possible.  Most  of  the  girls  for 
whom  it  is  needed  are  either  sexually  delinquent  or  are  on  the  road 
to  become  so.  In  a  very  short  time,  if  left  free  to  roam  about,  they 
become  infected  with  venereal  disease,  and  then  in  addition  they 
have  become  a  menace  to  the  public  health.  The  war  certainly  has 
shown  the  need  for  an  institution  of  this  character. 

State  Institutions  for  Feeble-minded  Children. 

When  one  reads  Dr.  Bidgood's  report  and  learns  of  feeble- 
minded children  in  alms-houses,  in  insane  asylums,  and  in  homes 
where  many  of  them  cannot  be  properly  cared  for,  and  when  one 
realizes  that  a  feeble-minded  parent  means  feeble-minded  children, 
he  cannot  doubt  that  of  the  two  state  institutions  just  mentioned 
the  need  for  that  for  feeble-minded  children  is  the  more  pressing. 
These  children  need  and  must  have  institutional  care  and  of  a  dif- 
ferent kind  from  that  given  in  other  state  institutions  for  children, 
in  alms-houses,  insane  asylums  or  in  private  orphanages  designed 
primarily  for  the  care  of  normal  boys  and  girls.  They  cannot  be 
well  cared  for  in  their  own  homes;  much  less  can  they  be  placed  in 
other  private  homes.  For  them  it  must  necessarily  be  a  properly 
equipped  state  institution  or  neglect.  A  state  made  up  of  humane 
men  and  women  will  not,  I  believe,  longer  neglect  these  weaker  ones. 

Since  all  other  state  institutions  arc  under  the  control  of  separate 
boards,  it  would  be  wise  to  place  this  one,  when  established,  under 
the  same  sort  of  control.  The  governor  should  appoint  the  mem- 
bers of  the  board  in  such  order  as  to  terms  of  service  that  the  body 
will  be  a  continuing  body  and  it  might  be  well  to  require  confirmation 
by  the  senate.     The  members  of  this  board,  as  of  all  other  boards 


240  Child  Welfare  in  Alabama 

controlling  state  institutions,  should  serve  without  any  compensa- 
tion. Their  actual  expenses  incurred  in  performing  their  duties 
should,  however,  be  paid  by  the  state. 

The  board  should  be  given  full  authority  to  appoint  and  dis- 
charge the  superintendent  and  to  exercise  full  control  over  the  insti- 
tution in  all  other  ways,  subject,  of  course,  to  the  law  of  the  state, 
and  limited  in  the  expenditure  of  money  to  the  amount  appropriated 
by  the  legislature. 

Commitment  to  the  institution  should  be  made  by  the  judge  of 
the  juvenile  court  after  it  has  been  established,  in  the  manner  pro- 
vided by  law,  that  the  child  is  feeble-minded  and  after  thorough 
investigation  of  all  the  circumstances  of  his  case.  Any  feeble-minded 
child  between  the  ages  of  5  and  16  years  should  be  admitted,  but 
children  over  16,  if  admitted  before  reaching  that  age,  should  be 
retained  in  the  institution  if  it  is  found  to  be  for  their  best  interests. 
No  parent  or  guardian  should  be  allowed  to  place  his  or  her  child 
or  ward  in  this  institution,  or  any  other  child-caring,  or  child-placing 
institution  for  that  matter,  except  upon  the  approval  of  the  judge  of 
juvenile  court. 

When  a  parent  is  able  to  pay  for  the  care  of  his  child  or  when 
the  child  has  property  in  his  own  right,  payment  should  be  made  by 
the  parent  or  out  of  the  child's  property  for  his  care ;  but  if  the  parent 
is  unable  to  pay  and  the  child  has  no  property,  the  fact  should  be 
certified  by  the  judge  of  the  juvenile  court  after  investigation  of  the 
home  by  the  probation  officer,  and  then  the  child  should  be  cared 
for  at  the  expense  of  the  state.  The  right  of  discharge  from  the  in- 
stitution should  lie  in  the  board  of  control,  but  no  child  should  be 
discharged  unless  he  is  found  to  be  of  sufficient  mentality  to  war- 
rant his  living  a  normal  life. 

Since  this  will  be  a  new  institution  a  new  act  of  the  legislature 
will  be  required.  The  act  of  appropriating  funds  and  providing  for 
the  establishment  of  the  institution  should  set  forth  the  rules  govern- 
ing admittance  to  it.  It  should  be  specifically  stated  that  no  child 
may  be  received  unless  committed  by  the  juvenile  court  or  com- 
mitted by  the  parent  with  the  approval  of  that  court. . 

Not  only  should  parents  and  guardians  be  encouraged  to  send 
feeble-minded  children  to  the  institution,  but  provision  should  be 
made  by  which  a  feeble-minded  child  who  is  not  being  properly 
cared  for,  may  be  taken  from  his  parent  or  guardian  by  order  of 


Law  and  Administration  241 

the  juvenile  court  and  sent  to  the  institution.  In  all  probability 
the  juvenile  court  would  now  have  this  authority  if  it  should  be 
shown  that  the  child  is  dependent  or  is  being  neglected;  but  that 
there  may  be  no  doubt,  this  provision  should  be  specifically  enacted 
into  law. 

State  Board  of  Social  Welfare. 

No  such  body  as  this  now  exists  in  the  state.  Such  a  board  should 
be  authorized  by  the  next  legislature  and  established  as  quickly 
as  possible  thereafter.  It  should  consist  of  5  or  7  members  ap- 
pointed by  the  Governor  and  confirmed  by  the  senate.  Women  as 
well  as  men  should  be  eligible  and  it  would  not  be  a  mistake  to  pro- 
vide that  there  shall  always  be  a  certain  number  of  women  on  the 
board.  The  terms  of  office  should  be  arranged  so  that  the  board  will 
be  a  continuing  body.  The  members  should  serve  without  pay; 
actual  expenses  should,  however,  be  paid  by  the  state. 

The  executive  officer  of  the  Board  of  Social  Welfare  should  be  a 
secretary  appointed  by  the  board  for  such  term  as  it  may  see  fit 
to  use  his  services.  Whether  this  board  and  its  employes  should  be 
charged  by  law  with  duties  other  than  those  hereafter  set  forth  is 
not  for  discussion  here,  this  being  a  report  on  matters  relating  to 
children  only.  But  as  a  state  agency  appointed  to  supervise  the  care 
of  children,  the  board  should  have  the  oversight  and  supervision  of: 

1.  All  maternity  homes  and  lying-in  hospitals. 

2.  The  work  of  all  probation  officers. 

3.  All  orphanages  and  other  institutions  and  societies,  state, 
county,  or  private,  receiving  or  caring  for  or  placing  children. 

The  board  should  be  authorized  to  prescribe  rules  and  regula- 
tions for  the  conduct  of  maternity  homes  and  lying-in  hospitals, 
to  grant  an  annual  license  to  every  such  institution,  to  inspect  them 
from  time  to  time  and  to  cancel  the  license  and  to  order  the  closing 
of  the  institution  after  due  notice  for  improper  conduct  or  violation 
of  the  rules  prescribed.  It  should  be  made  unlawful  for  any  ma- 
ternity home  or  lying-in  hospital  to  receive  any  woman  about  to  be 
confined  unless  it  has  a  license  in  full  force.  Rules  for  the  placing 
of  children  born  in  maternity  homes  should  be  prescribed  by  the 
State  Board. 

County  probation-truancy  officers  should  be  supervised  and 
instructed  by  the  State  Board  of  Social  Welfare,  and  the  juvenile 


242  Child  Welfare  in  Alabama 

courts  should  be  required  to  report  to  it  the  disposition  of  every  case 
handled.  Probation-truancy  officers  should  be  made  the  agents 
of  the  State  Board  in  their  respective  counties  acting  always  with 
the  advice  of  the  county  advisory  board  required  to  be  appointed 
by  each  juvenile  judge.  In  other  words,  the  advisory  board  in  each 
county  should  act  as  the  county  board  of  social  welfare.  Such  powers 
and  duties  should  be  conferred  upon  it  by  law  as  will  enable  it  to 
co-operate  with  the  state  board  and  to  function  freely  under  its  super- 
vision. 

Every  institution  whether  state,  county,  municipal  or  private, 
which  receives  or  cares  for  children  should  be  required  by  law  to 
report  annually  to  the  State  Board  of  Social  Welfare.  Authority 
should  also  be  given  the  board  to  require  special  reports  from  any 
of  these  institutions  at  any  time.  Every  private  child-caring  or 
child-receiving  institution  should  be  required  to  procure  an  annual 
license  from  the  State  Board  of  Social  Welfare,  and  should  be  open 
to  inspection  by  its  agents  at  all  times.  The  right  to  order  improve- 
ments in  the  care  of  inmates  or  in  the  conduct  of  the  institution 
should  be  given  with  the  additional  power  to  close  any  licensed  in- 
stitution, after  due  notice,  for  failure  to  conform  to  the  law  or  to 
observe  the  rules  and  regulations  prescribed  by  the  State  Board. 
It  should  be  made  unlawful  for  any  person  to  solicit  or  receive  funds 
for  any  maternity  hospital,  orphanage,  or  other  private  or  semi- 
public  child-caring  or  child-receiving  institution  which  does  not  have 
a  license  in  full  force  or  for  any  such  unlicensed  institution  to  receive 
children  into  its  care. 

Every  child-placing  agency  should  be  licensed,  supervised, 
and  inspected  in  the  same  manner  as  the  above  named  child-caring 
institutions.  The  State  Board  of  Social  Welfare  should  prescribe 
rules  and  regulations  for  child-placing  societies  and  require  annual 
reports.  It  should  have  the  power  to  cancel  any  license  for  cause 
after  notice.  It  should  be  made  unlawful  to  solicit  funds  for  any 
child-placing  society  not  having  a  license  in  full  force,  or  for  any 
unlicensed  society  to  engage  in  receiving  or  placing  children. 

The  duties  and  powers  of  the  State  Board  of  Social  Welfare 
should  in  no  way  conflict  with  those  of  the  State  Board  of  Health. 
It  is  or  should  be  the  duty  of  the  health  authorities  to  see  that 
proper  health  conditions  prevail  in  all  maternity  hospitals,  and  in 
child-caring  institutions,  just  as  in  all  other  places — that  the  premi- 


Law  and  Administration  243 

ses  are  sanitary,  the  water  supply  piire  and  that  proper  precautions 
are  taken,  not  only  to  insure  the  good  health  of  the  inmates  but  of 
all  the  people.  The  State  Board  of  Health  and  county  health  authori- 
ties act  as  expert  medical  advisers;  the  State  Board  of  Social  Wel- 
fare should  act  as  the  over-father  of  all  unfortunate  children.  The 
father  should  be  free  and  have  the  right  to  call  the  medical  adviser 
at  any  and  all  times.  The  two  boards  should  and  would  act  in  co- 
operation for  the  public  good. 

There  could  hardly  arise  in  the  mind  of  anyone  any  question 
as  to  the  wisdom  of  requiring  all  these  private  and  semi-public  in- 
stitutions to  obtain  licenses  and  to  be  subject  to  the  supervision  and 
inspection  of  a  duly  appointed  state  agency;  but  there  may  arise 
in  the  minds  of  some  a  question  as  to  the  legal  right  of  the  state 
to  insist  upon  a  license  and  to  inspect  and  supervise.  The  writer  is 
certain  that  the  state  does  have  this  right  and  that  an  act  which 
creates  a  board  as  the  agent  of  the  state  to  license,  inspect  and  super- 
vise these  institutions  will  be  held  to  be  valid.  The  legislature  has 
the  unquestioned  right  to  enact  laws  for  the  supervision  and  control 
of  corporations.  Benevolent,  educational  and  religious  corporations 
are  not  exceptions  to  the  rule  in  this  respect. 

A  careful  reading  of  Dr.  Bidgood's  report  forces  a  consideration 
of  some  other  matters  to  which  attention  should  be  given: 

1.  Deaf  Children.  There  is  no  law  to  compel  the  education  of 
deaf  children,  and  one  should  be  enacted.  When  the  regular  school 
census  is  taken,  deaf  and  blind  children  as  well  as  other  children 
so  defective  as  to  be  unable  to  attend  an  ordinary  school  should  be 
enumerated,  and  it  should  be  made  the  duty  of  the  probation- 
truancy  officer  to  see  that  such  children  are  properly  cared  for  and 
educated  as  required  by  law.  The  law  that  a  child  who  does  not  have 
a  parent  or  guardian  to  care  for  him  must  return  during  vacation 
to  the  community  from  which  he  was  sent,  is  wrong.  Such  a  child 
should  be  kept  at  the  institution.  It  is  clear  that  the  school  for  the 
deaf  should  be  enlarged. 

2.  Blind  Children  and  Negro  Deaf  and  Blind.  What  has  been 
said  just  above  in  respect  to  deaf  children  should  be  said  in  respect 
to  blind  white  children  and  negro  children  who  are  deaf  or  blind. 
It  is  good  economy  to  educate  deaf  and  blind  children  so  that  they 
may  be  self-supporting  and  not  be  burdens  upon  the  state  or  their 
own  communities. 


244  Child  Welfare  in  Alabama 

The  institutions  for  the  blind  and  deaf  should  be  declared 
to  be  educational  institutions,  and  placed  under  the  supervision  of 
the  State  Superintendent  of  Education. 

3.  Courses  of  Study.  As  far  as  possible  the  school  courses  in 
institutions  for  children,  public  or  private,  should  conform  to  that 
of  the  public  schools.  It  should  be  made  the  duty  of  the  State  Super- 
intendent to  see  that  they  do  so  conform  and  that  the  teachers  are 
qualified  to  teach  the  courses  taught  in  the  public  schools.  Teachers' 
certificates  should  be  required  just  as  for  teaching  in  the  public  schools. 

4.  Receiving  and  Disposition  oj  Children  by  Institutions.  No 
institutions,  public  or  private,  should  be  allowed  to  receive  any 
child  without  the  approval  of  the  judge  of  the  juvenile  court  of  the 
county  in  which  the  child  resides.  If  possible,  children  should  be 
kept  in  their  own  homes  and  the  juvenile  judge  should  always 
know  why  they  are  not  so  kept.  In  many  cases  this  principle  and 
the  necessary  investigation  will  serve  to  keep  the  family  intact. 
Frequently  admittance  into  an  institution  is  entirely  too  easy. 

The  permanent  custody  of  a  child  under  16  years  of  age  should 
not  be  transferred  without  the  approval  of  the  judge  of  the  juven- 
ile court  of  the  county  in  which  the  child  resides.  No  institution, 
whether  child-caring  or  child-placing,  should  be  permitted  to  send 
a  child  under  16  years  of  age  into  any  private  home  unless  such 
home  is  approved  by  the  judge  of  the  juvenile  court  of  the  county 
in  which  the  home  is  located.  Probation-truancy  officers  should  be 
required  to  visit  such  homes.  This  should  apply  even  to  the  child's 
own  home  when  a  child  is  returned  to  it  by  an  institution. 

The  State  Board  of  Social  Welfare  should  have  authority  to 
supervise  the  discharge  or  placing  of  children  from  both  public  and 
private  institutions.  There  is  always  the  danger  that  children  being 
kept  too  long  may  become  completely  "institutionalized"  and  thereby 
unfitted  for  normal  life.  Sometimes  larger  children  are  kept  for  their 
services  and  thereby  injured.  The  child  should  have  a  chance  to 
work  for  himself.  Perhaps  the  best  solution  of  this  would  lie  in  a 
child-placing  agent  in  the  child  welfare  division  of  the  State  Board 
of  Social  Welfare.  There  should  be  no  difficulty  at  all  in  placing 
normal  children  16  years  of  age  or  over  in  good  homes  under  good 
contracts  for  care,  education  and  wages.  The  different  institutions 
should  be  required  to  notify  this  agent  of  any  such  children  in  their 
care  in  order  that  if  possible  he  may  find  them  proper  homes. 


Law  and  Administration  245 

5.  Commitment  to  Child-placing  Agencies.  Amendment  should 
be  made  to  the  juvenile  court  law  so  as  to  make  it  possible  for  the 
court  to  commit  children  into  the  permanent  care  of  child-placing 
agencies  for  later  placement  in  homes,  such  homes  to  be  approved 
by  the  probation-truancy  officer  of  the  county.  The  present  law 
is  not  sufficient. 

6.  Epileptic  and  Crippled  Children.  Attention  should  be  called 
to  the  fact  that  the  state  makes  no  provision  for  the  care  of  epileptic 
or  crippled  children.  This  is  a  matter  which  will  demand  considera- 
tion at  an  early  date.  The  state  will  have  to  hold  itself  responsible 
for  seeing  that  such  children  are  given  proper  care. 

7.  Mothers'  Pensions.  In  order  that  the  social  agencies  may 
be  complete,  provision  will  have  to  be  made  for  giving  help  to  mothers 
of  dependent  children  in  their  own  homes.  It  is  admitted  by  all 
that  the  good  family  home  is  the  best  place  for  the  normal  child. 
In  most  cases  the  best  place  for  the  child  is  with  his  own  mother 
if  she  be  a  proper  person,  and  the  juvenile  court  sits  to  determine 
that  fact.  As  a  rule  the  mother  will  care  for  children  at  great  sac- 
rifice; but  there  comes  a  time  when  she  must  have  help  if  she  is  to 
keep  the  family  intact.  That  help  should  be  given  her.  The  break- 
ing up  of  a  family  home  is  a  social  loss. 

Provision  should  be  made  by  law  for  the  payment  of  definite 
sums  out  of  the  public  funds  of  the  county  to  mothers  of  dependent 
children  upon  the  order  of  the  judge  of  the  juvenile  court.  Payments 
should  be  made  to  the  mother  on  condition  of  the  proper  care  and 
education  of  her  children.  Alabama  needs  a  mothers'  pension  law, 
and  the  State  Board  of  Social  Welfare  should  supervise  its  ad- 
ministration. 

V.    ADMINISTRATION   OF  CHILD   LABOR  LAWS 

Group  I. — Amendments  to  Child  Labor  Law. 

All  changes  hereafter  suggested  could  be  made  by  amending 
Act  169,  Statutes  1915. 

Recommendation  1.     Conformity  with  Compulsory  Education  Law. 

A  sub-section  should  be  added  to  Section  1  and  worded  so  as  to 

prohibit  the  employment  of  any  child  under  IG  years  of  age  except 


246  Child  Welfare  in  Alabama 

children  14  years  of  age  in  occupations  not  forbidden  to  children 
under  16,  when  such  children  14  years  of  age  have  completed  the 
seventh  grade  or  its  equivalent  and  have  a  work  permit  issued  as 
provided  by  law. 

2.  Work  Hours. 

Both  the  8-hotir  day  and  the  48-hour  week  for  children  under 
16  could  be  secured  by  amending  section  2.  This  amendment  should 
be  made.  No  child  under  16  years  of  age  should  be  worked  more. 
The  experience  of  mankind  has  shown  the  danger  of  long  hours  of 
labor. 

3.  Investigation  of  Proofs  of  Age  for  Work  Permits. 

The  authorizing  of  inspectors  to  investigate  proofs  of  age  and 
other  facts  and  to  suspend  work  permits  improperly  issued  could 
be  granted  by  the  addition  of  a  single  sentence  at  the  end  of  section  15. 

4.  Age  Certificates  for  Children  over  16. 

This  recommendation  should  be  written  into  the  law  for  the 
benefit  of  such  employers  as  may  desire  to  avail  themselves  of  this 
method  of  taking  precaution  that  children  are  not  illegally  employed. 

5.  School  Attendance  of  Working  Children, 

Section  8  of  the  child  labor  act  might  well  be  repealed.  The 
compulsory  education  act  now  requires  attendance  at  school  to  the 
age  of  15  and  this  should  be  extended  to  16  years  with  exemption  of 
children  14  or  over  who  are  legally  at  work.  Provision  should, 
however,  be  made  as  soon  as  possible  for  continuation  schools  for 
working  children. 

6.  Educational  Requirement  for  Work  Permit. 

The  educational  requirement  for  a  work  permit  for  a  child  14 
years  of  age  or  over  should  be  the  completion  of  the  fourth  grade 
or  its  equivalent.  Sub-head  (1)  of  section  10  of  the  law  should  be 
so  amended.  This,  of  course,  refers  to  the  general  work  permit, 
which  authorizes  the  child  to  stay  out  of  school. 


Law  and  Administration  247 

7.  Vacation  Work  Permits. 

A  section  or  clause  should  be  added  to  Act  169,  Statutes  1915 
(the  child  labor  law),  requiring  the  issuance  of  vacation  work  permits 
to  children  between  12  and  14,  for  employment  in  offices  and  stores 
in  towns  of  fewer  than  25,000  inhabitants  during  summer  vacation 
on  same  qualifications  as  for  the  regular  work  permit  but  waiving 
the  educational  requirement.  Such  vacation  work  permits  should 
be  declared  valid  only  for  that  part  of  the  year  when  the  public 
school  is  not  in  session.  They  would  not  of  course  authorize  the 
employment  of  a  child  under  16  ^-ears  at  any  occupation  at  which 
children  under  this  age  are  forbidden  to  be  employed. 

8.  Work  Permits  to  be  Issued  in  Duplicate. 

This  should  be  provided  for  in  the  act. 

9.  Badges  for  Newsboys. 

Section  13  of  the  child  labor  act  should  be  amended  so  that 
badges  for  newsboys  will  be  issued  by  the  probation-and-truancy 
officer  or  bureau  recommended  in  the  chapter  on  juvenile  courts. 
This  officer  should  have  the  right  to  revoke  badges  for  cause.  In- 
spectors should  be  charged  with  the .  duty  of  showing  cause  why 
such  badges  should  be  revoked. 

10  and  11.    Departmental  Agency  to  Enforce  Child  Labor  Law. 

If  a  Department  of  Labor  is  created,  (it  will  be  required  at  an 
early  date),  the  enforcement  of  laws  regulating  the  employment  of 
children  as  well  as  all  other  laws  relating  to  labor  should  certainly 
be  placed  under  it.  Until  such  a  department  is  created  the  enforce- 
ment of  the  child  labor  law  might  well  be  left  under  the  prison  in- 
spector or  placed  under  the  proposed  State  Board  of  Social  Welfare. 
Wherever  it  is  placed,  sufficient  inspectors  and  clerical  help  should 
be  provided. 

Group  II.     Amendments  to  Compulsory  Education  Law. 
See  section  II  on  Education. 

Group  III. — General  Recommendations. 

All  these  relate  to  details  of  enforcement,  and  need  not,  there- 
fore, be  discussed  here. 


248  Child  Welfare  in  Alabama 

VI.    RECREATION 

An  examination  of  the  statutes  of  Alabama  leads  one  to  the 
conclusion  that  recreation  as  a  part  of  the  state's  social  policy  has 
not  been  given  general  and  serious  consideration.  In  fact,  one  may 
safely  say  that  there  is  no  law  in  Alabama  on  this  subject.  The 
chapter  inclines  more  to  the  social  than  to  the  legal  side  of  the  mat- 
ter and  on  that  side  is  its  own  best  discussion. 


Schools  and  Parks. 

The  chief  difficulty  in  the  way  of  carrying  out  Miss  Gleason's 
program  is  the  lack  of  authority  to  expend  public  school  money  for 
recreational  purposes.  There  is  nothing  in  the  present  school  law 
to  authorize  it.  Public  school  money  could  not  be  legally  expended 
for  trained  supervisors  of  play,  and  whatever  is  done  in  the  very 
near  future  will  have  to  be  done  through  municipal  and  local  activi- 
ties. There  should  be  an  act  of  the  legislature  making  the  public 
school  the  community  center  and  throwing  it  open,  under  proper 
supervision,  for  any  and  all  community  meetings  not  of  an  immoral 
or  illegal  nature.  Playground  equipment  could  be  provided  just  as 
desks  are  provided  for  school  buildings,  but  there  is  no  authority  for 
the  expenditure  of  public  school  money  for  co-operating  with  park 
commissions  or  other  recreational  agencies.  All  this  will  have  to 
depend  largely  upon  the  activity  of  interested  persons  in  the  com- 
munity. In  view  of  the  fact  that  there  may  be  some  doubt  as  to  the 
legal  right  of  school  boards  to  expend  public  school  money  or  money 
provided  for  the  erection  of  school  houses  for  school  playground 
equipment,  this  authority  should  be  specifically  given  by  an  act 
of  the  legislature. 

Dance  Halls. 

The  general  law  makes  no  provision  for  the  supervision  of  public 
dance  halls.  The  matter  rests,  therefore,  entirely  with  the  muni- 
cipalities. There  should  be  strict  supervision  of  such  places  by  the 
municipal  authorities.  This  would  come  under  the  police  authority 
and  needs  no  legislation  to  make  it  effective,  but  there  should  be  a 
general  law  regulating  the  admittance  of  children  to  public  dance 
halls.    There  is  no  such  law  now. 


Law  and  Administration  249 

No  semi-public  dance  or  dance  at  any  municipal  dance  hall 
should  be  permitted  without  a  license  and  before  this  is  granted  the 
authorities  should  require  adequate  assurance  of  proper  supervision. 

Motion  Pictures. 

Motion  pictures  present  a  problem  not  easy  of  solution.  There 
is  at  present  no  general  law  regulating  them.  The  State  Board  of 
Health  has  authority  to  inspect  and  enforce  sanitary  conditions 
but  has  no  inspectors  for  the  work,  which  must  be  left  to  the  muni- 
cipality if  done  at  all.  There  should  be  enacted  a  law  making  it 
unlawful  to  exhibit  any  lewd,  vulgar  or  immoral  motion  picture. 
It  would  perhaps  be  well  to  accept  as  good  any  picture  approved 
by  the  National  Board  of  Review.  There  should  likewise  be  en- 
acted a  law  forbidding  the  admittance  of  children  at  night  unless 
attended  by  parents  or  guardians. 

Rural  Schools. 

Under  Urban  Schools,  changes  in  the  general  law  have  already 
been  suggested  in  reference  to  the  use  of  public  school  houses  as 
community  centers.  This  should  apply  to  all  public  school  houses, 
rural  or  urban. 

Motion  pictures  might  be  secured  for  rural  school  houses  by 
the  expansion  of  the  act  providing  for  the  establishment  and  main- 
tenance of  libraries  in  rural  schools.  Act  345,  statutes  1915.  The 
same  plan  of  raising  funds  for  motion  pictures  should  be  adopted 
by  amending  this  act. 


This  book  is 

DUE  on  the  last  date  st£ 

imped  below 

i 

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FEB  2     t95t 

Coi.Llb^ 

FEB  2  0  1964 

l^eco  ^^^^ 

Form  L-9-35ii(-8,'28 

UC  SOUTHERN  REGIONAL  LIBRARY  FACILITY 


AA    000  396  584    5 


